It will be seen from the above that, while in the former group of states the white population has progressed with, on the whole, tolerable regularity, the slave population has, in two of them, scarcely advanced at all, and in the third at a rate far short of that attained by the white population. On the other hand, in the latter group a group composed of states in which it is perfectly notorious that plantation labour is far severer than in the former - the slave population has in one instance increased with much greater rapidity than the whites, and in another at almost the same rate. Even in Louisiana the increase of the slave population has not fallen greatly behind that of the whites, although the circumstances of that state might well lead us to expect this result, being, as it is, the seat of a great commercial city with a large and rapidly growing white population, and its prevailing industry- the cultivation of sugar-being, as is well known, enormously destructive of slave life.

CHAPTER XVIII

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 1860-1915

I. FOREIGN TRADE IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Extent and Character, 1878-19121

Agriculture furnishes by far the greater share of the country's exports. The extent of this trade herewith is indicated in a Report of the Department of Agriculture as follows:

HIGH VALUE OF NATIONAL SURPLUS

Over a billion dollars is, for the fourth time, the value of the exports of farm products. It is sufficient to pay the expenses of the National Government. As long ago as 1878 the value of agricultural exports reached half a billion dollars; by 1892 the amount had touched $800,000,000; and by 1901 it had grown to $950,000,000. The billion-dollar mark was reached in 1907, when the value of agricultural exports amounted to $1,054,000,000. That amount has not since been equaled, but the exports of 1908 and 1911 exceeded a billion dollars in value, and in 1912 the amount fell short of the record exports by only $4,000,000.

RISING QUANTITY OF EXPORTS

The high value is not entirely due to high prices. The trend of the quantity of the exports of particular commodities can best be understood by using index numbers. Let the quantities of the average yearly exports of the 10 years 1900 to 1909 be represented by 100 and convert the quantities of the exports of other groups of years and of individual years into terms related to that basis. It will then appear that the exports of oleo oil have increased year by year after the period of 1900 to 1909 to the relative amount of 112.3 in 1912. This commodity was exported this year to the value of $13,000,000.

1 Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1912 (Washington, 1913),

Lard compounds also have increased above the average of the period 1900 to 1909, the relative number for 1912 being 114.8. The exports of this commodity are this year as high as $5,000,000. Various animal oils, not specifically described, have increased in exports during the last three years. Another commodity that is increasing in exports is eggs, which have arisen to the relative number 359.8 in comparison with 100 as representing the 10 years 1900 to 1909. In 1912 the value of these exports amounted to $3,400,000. The exports of mutton amount to only a few hundred thousand dollars in value, but they are increasing, and the relative number for 1912 is 283.1 in comparison with 1900 to 1909.

The exports of cured pork hams declined in 1910 and 1911 to about three-quarters of the average from 1900 to 1909, but in 1912 the exports were very nearly restored to the former amount. Lard is another commodity that has been climbing back to former importance as an exported commodity, and the quantity exported in 1912 is indicated by 88.8. If the exports of pork and of all of its products are consolidated, it will appear that they are rapidly returning to the average exports of 1900 and 1909.

Cotton is the great mainstay of the export trade. Marked increase in exports is conspicuous. Compared with the average exports of 1900 to 1909 represented by 100, the exports of 1890 to 1899 were 79.7; the exports of 1910 were 85.7; in 1911 they were 107.8; and in 1912 the relative number is 147.9.

Apples are supporting an increased export trade, which now amounts to about $10,000,000. The export trade in dried apples is steadily.increasing, and in comparison with the average of 1900 to 1909, the exports of 1912 are represented by 159. For fresh apples the exports of 1912 are represented by 124.1. Prunes are a fruit that has reversed the tide of international trade. Its exports now amount to several million dollars a year, and are increasing. During the last three years the exports of this fruit were nearly double the average of the period 1900 to 1909. Raisins have done better yet, and now amount to about four times the average exports of the period mentioned. Their value is more than a million dollars. Glucose and grape sugar, with exports amounting to several million dollars a year, are contributing to the foreign trade annual quantities above the average of the 10-year period mentioned.

To the list of commodities whose exports are increasing and are above the average of the 10 years, 1900 to 1909, or very close to that average, may be added hops, corn-oil cake, cotton-seed oil cake and

oil-cake meal, flaxseed oil cake and oil-cake meal, cotton-seed oil, linseed oil, rice, cotton seed, tobacco; and the four vegetables, beans, pease, onions, and potatoes.

The foregoing would be quite a respectable list even though cotton were omitted. Beef and its products have gone into a sorry decline in the export trade, but wheat flour still maintains a high relative showing, as is indicated by 71.2 in comparison with the annual average of the 10 years, 1900 to 1909, and has steadily increased in exports during the last three years. The exports of wheat, including flour converted to wheat, amounted to 80,000,000 bushels in 1912.

The general fact, however, is that the packing-house products have declined in value of exports since 1906, when they reached their highest value, $208,000,000, and have declined still more in quantity because of the increasing prices, yet the value of packinghouse exports has increased since 1910 and reached the amount of $164,000,000 in 1912. So with grain and grain products, the quantity in the aggregate is diminishing as well as the value, and the high. export values of five and six years ago have not since been equaled. In 1912 the export group known as grain and grain products had a value of $123,000,000.

IMPORTS

Agricultural imports are steadily increasing in value, subject to some fluctuations. They reached their highest value in 1912, when they amounted to $784,000,000. This was an increase of about $100,000,000 over 1911 and 1910, the years of highest import values preceding 1912. Notable increases are found in the imports of coffee, sugar and molasses, tobacco, wool, and packing-house products, in which hides and skins are very prominent.

LARGE BALANCE OF TRADE MAINTAINED

It is apparent that since 1908 the balance in the foreign trade in agricultural products has not kept up to its former figure, but, as has already been said, this is not because of diminished export values, but is due to a greater increase of imports than exports. Notwithstanding this, the balance in favor of exports of farm products was as high as $278,000,000 in 1912, and this was higher than the amount for 1910 and also for 1909.

At no time before 1912 have farm products been hard pushed, nor, indeed, closely approached, by products other than agricultural ones in contribution to the balance of trade in favor of all exports.

It was not until 1898 that products other than agricultural had a balance in favor of exports, but twice since that time

in 1903 and

1910 -the balance was in favor of exports. The balance in favor of the exports of these commodities was only $5,000,000 below the agricultural balance in 1912.

FOREST PRODUCTS

Forest products were exported in 1912 to the value of $108,000,000, and this was greater than the amount for any preceding year. This is partly due to high prices, yet there were increases in the quantities of the exports of boards, shooks, rosin, and turpentine.

The imports, as well as the exports, of forest products exhibited a marked tendency to increase in value in recent years, and during these years the imports have very much exceeded the exports in value. In 1912 the imports of forest products were valued at $173,000,000, or $58,000,000 more than the foreign and domestic exports.

II. LAND TENURE IN THE UNITED STATES

A. Land Tenure in 18801

One of the marked differences between farming in the United States and farming in Europe has been the manner of holding lands. In this country land has been not only easily acquired, but also easily transferred. The advantages of this system over the tenancy system in Europe is given in the Tenth Census as follows:

The methods of agriculture in any country are, of necessity, based upon its system of land tenure. Local systems of land-ownership and land-holding, and even traditional customs not compelled by statute law, but which become a sort of unwritten law, are not easily changed, even if very faulty; but when changed agriculture adapts itself to the new conditions with comparative ease, although usually not quickly. Fortunately for us feudalism never existed here, and has not, therefore, left its evil influence on our land laws, or on the sentiments and traditions connected with agriculture, or on the political and social life of either land-owners or farm laborers. Our homestead and pre-emption laws have made it possible for each man to become a land-owner upon actual occupation and settlement, and our land laws secure to the proprietor perfect title, absolute ownership, complete control and easy sale or transfer. Land has here neither social nor political value, but merely its agricultural value, and it is placed

1 Tenth Census, 1880. Report on the Productions of Agriculture (Washington, 1883), 523-5.