LECTURE IV.-THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN.

Julius Cæsar in Gaul. Invasion of Britain. Agricola. Progress of civilization. Introduction of Christianity.

1. BEFORE the time when Julius Cæsar came we have no written history of Britain. But, a very long time after he went away, people began to make up a history of the Britons. That, we feel sure, could not be a true one, because the writers had no means of knowing what had happened, or the names and exploits of kings who had lived and died (if they ever lived at all) hundreds of years before. There may, indeed, have been traditions; that is, things told by word of mouth from one to another, from father to son; but if we consider how stories get changed in repeating, even in the course of a day or two, we shall see that we cannot put any faith in those old tales. I mention them, partly, because King Lear and his daughters are said to have lived in the times they describe; and their story is very interesting, though almost certainly it is not true as history.

BC 55. The Roman

2. But we will now see what Julius Cæsar himself tells us about his first coming to Britain. "Though but a small part of the summer now remained, for in those regions, Gaul, stretching very much to the north, the winters begin invasion. early, Cæsar nevertheless resolved to pass over into Britain, having certain intelligence that in all his wars with the Gauls the enemies of the commonwealth had ever received assistance from thence. He indeed foresaw that the season of the year would not permit him to finish the war; yet he thought it would be of no small advantage if he should but take a view of the island, learn the nature of the inhabitants, and acquaint himself with the coasts, harbours, and landing-places, to all which the Gauls were perfect strangers; for almost none but merchants resort to that island, nor have even they any knowledge of the country, except the sea-coast, and the parts opposite to Gaul. Having, therefore, called together the merchants from all parts, they could neither inform him of the largeness of the island, nor what or how powerful the nations were that inhabited it, nor of their

customs, arts of war, or the harbours fit to receive large ships. For these reasons, before he embarked himself, he thought proper to send C. Volusenus with a galley to get some knowledge of these things, commanding him as soon as he had informed himself in what he wanted to know to return with all expedition."

3. When Volusenus returned, giving what information he could (which was not much, for he had been afraid to leave his ship, or trust himself in the hands of the barbarians), Cæsar made all preparations for the crossing. "He weighed anchor about one in the morning, and about ten o'clock reached the coast of Britain, where he saw all the cliffs" (the tall, white cliffs of Dover) "covered with the enemy's forces. The nature of the place was such that, the sea being bounded by steep mountains, the enemy might easily launch their javelins on us from above. Not thinking this, therefore, a convenient landing-place," he sailed about eight miles farther, "stopping over against a plain and open shore. But the barbarians, perceiving our design, sent their cavalry and chariots before, which they frequently make use of in battle, and following with the rest of their forces, endeavoured to oppose our landing; and indeed we found the difficulty very great on many accounts, for our ships, being large, required a great depth of water; and the soldiers, who were wholly unacquainted with the places, and had their hands embarrassed, and laden with a weight of armour, were at the same time to leap from the ships, stand breast-high amidst the waves, and encounter the enemy; while they, fighting on dry ground, or advancing only a little way into the water, having the free use of all their limbs, and in places which they perfectly knew, could boldly cast their darts and spur on their horses, well inured to that kind of service. All these circumstances served to spread a terror among our men."

4. The soldiers seeming to hang back, and "demurring to leap into the sea, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, having first invoked the gods for success, cried out aloud, 'Follow me, fellowsoldiers, unless you will betray the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy; for my part, I am resolved to discharge my duty to Cæsar and the commonwealth.' On this he jumped into the sea, and advanced with the eagle against the enemy; whereat, our men exhorting one another to prevent so signal a disgrace, all that were in the ship followed him; which being perceived by those in the nearest vessels, they also did the like, and boldly approached the enemy."

5. Thus the Romans first set foot on British ground, from

which they did not finally go away for nearly 500 years, though they had many a hard fight before they could Difficulties. establish themselves there. We must not linger over all Cæsar has to say about the war in Britain, but only notice two interesting things. One is, that he had the greatest trouble with his ships, for the storms of these northern seas broke so many of them to pieces; and the Roman sailors were greatly puzzled by the tides, for they were most accustomed to the Mediterranean Sea, where there are no very observable tides. Cæsar says, "That very night it happened to be full moon, when the tides on the sea-coast always rise highest-a thing at that time wholly unknown to the Romans." The other interesting matter is about the war-chariots, which were quite new to the Roman soldiers, and terrified them very much. "Their way of fighting with their chariots is this: first they drive their chariots on all sides, and throw their darts; insomuch that by the very terror of the horses and noise of the wheels they often break the ranks of the enemy. When they have forced their way into the midst of the cavalry they quit their chariots, and fight on foot; meantime the drivers retire a little from the combat, and place themselves in such a manner as to favour the retreat of their countrymen, should they be overpowered by the enemy. Thus in action they perform the part both of nimble horsemen and stable infantry; and by continual exercise and use have arrived at that expertness, that in the most steep and difficult places they can stop their horses on a full stretch, turn them which way they please, run along the pole, rest on the harness, and throw themselves back into their chariots with incredible dexterity." It is often said that these chariots had sharp cutting scythes fixed on to the wheels and other parts, but it does not seem quite certain that this is true, as Cæsar tells us nothing about them, which he would most likely have done when he was describing them so carefully.

resistance.

6. With all his courage and skill, Julius Cæsar could not make much way; he got once as far as St. Alban's, but he never really conquered Britain. It was about 100 years British after his first coming that the Romans sent another great army, which really did subdue a good part of the island. One of the most celebrated British chiefs was a man named Caradoc, which the Romans lengthened out into Caractacus. He led his men very gallantly against the Romans, but at last was taken prisoner, and sent with all his family to Rome. In this calamity he behaved with such calmness and dignity

that the people of Rome were struck with admiration, and gave him his liberty.

7. Another famous British leader was a woman, Queen Buddug, improved by the Romans into Boadicea. She may fairly be called a great heroine; but she too was vanquished, and they say poisoned herself for shame and sorrow. It shows how completely afterwards the Britons submitted to the Romans, both in body and mind, that one of them, Gildas, who wrote a history of these times, calls Boadicea, his own country-woman, fighting for her liberty, "a deceitful lioness," and her people "crafty foxes."

AD 78.

8. The best of all the Roman governors who were sent to Britain, and the one who finally established the Roman dominion, was Agricola. We have his life, written by his own son-in-law, the great historian Tacitus, who has been Agricola. already mentioned. He had the deepest respect and affection for him. He tells us of his bravery, modesty, and wisdom, of his skill in war and in the arts of government, and a great deal of this praise seems really to have been deserved. He completed the conquest of Southern Britain, and pushed a long way into Scotland, as far as the Grampian hills. Here there was a terrible fight between the Romans and the natives, whose general was named Galgacus. Tacitus, most likely, heard all about this from Agricola himself, and gives a spirited account of the battle, and of the stirring speeches which the two leaders made to their armies. The fight was a very obstinate and fierco one, but when night came the Romans were victorious, and the Britons fled. In their despair they set fire to their houses; some even "murdered their children and wives, as an act of compassion and tenderness. The next day produced a more ample display of the victory; on all sides a profound silence, solitary hills, thick smoke rising from the houses on fire, and not a living soul to be found by the scouts."

9. Nevertheless these northerners were never really subdued, and at last Agricola resolved to leave them in possession of their wild mountainous country, building a wall to prevent

walls.

them from coming farther south. This wall stretched The Roman between the mouths of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and was rather a line of forts than what we now call a wall. But it was found impossible to keep all that region in subjection, even as far north as the wall; and some years later the Emperor Hadrian gave up a good deal of it, and built another wall much farther south, between the Solway and the Tyne. The place

where our best coals come from is just in that neighbourhood, and is still called "Wallsend."

10. Agricola appears to have been a really kind and wise ruler over those who were once conquered. As he knew that "little is gained by arms where grievances and oppressions follow, he determined to cut off all the causes of war. . . . Beginning, therefore, with himself, and those appertaining to him, he checked and regulated his own household— -a task which to many proves not less difficult than that of governing a province. All that passed he would know, though all that was amiss he would not punish. Upon small offences he bestowed pardon; for such as were great he exercised proportionable severity."

island.

11. Though it had long been believed that Britain was an island, it was not till Agricola's time that it became finally known and established. Agricola sent ships from a place supposed Britain an to have been Sandwich Haven, and they sailed on and on all round the north of Scotland, discovering the Orkney Islands, till they returned to the same place from which they had started. When in those northern regions they noticed how long the days were, but do not seem to have been aware that this was only in the summer-time, and that they paid for it by very long nights in winter. "Their days in length surpass ours. Their nights are very clear, and at the extremity of the country very short, so that between the setting and return of day you perceive but small interval. They affirm, that were it not for the intervention of clouds the rays of the sun would be seen in the night, and that he doth not rise or fall, but only pass by; for that the extremities of the earth, which are level, yielding but a low shadow, prevent darkness from rising high and spreading." It is curious to observe how easy it seems to find a reason for things we do not understand; we know now that this learnedsounding reason had nothing whatever to do with it, inasmuch as the earth is not flat, like a plate with edges, as they thought it. 12. Having established peace, Agricola regulated the taxes more justly, and would not allow extortion. He also tried to tame and teach the wild Britons. The lower people The Britons were employed in draining bogs and making firm and excellent paved roads. Some of these roads are still existing in England, especially one which was called Watling Street, and which extended all across England, from Dover, through London, to Chester. There is a very rough old stone to be seen in Cannon Street (which is now built up into a church wall to preserve it) which is called London Stone, and

become

civilized.