swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft feathers. Wisdom is justified by her children. A dollar is worth eight shillings. I saw seven golden candlesticks; and in the midst of the candlesticks one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt with a golden girdle. His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes were as a flame of fire; and his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burnt in a furnace; and his voice, as the sound of many waters. James has arrived.

2. THE ARTICLE.

An article is a word placed before nouns to limit their meaning.

OBS. A noun without an article before it denotes the whole of a class or kind; as man is endowed with reason; that is, all men: fish live in water; that is, all fish.

The articles are definite and indefinite.

1. The definite is the; which denotes a particular individual of a class or kind; as the man, the boy, the house, the mountain.

2. The indefinite is a or an; which denotes an individual of a class or kind, but not any particular one; as a man, a boy, an ox, an elephant.

OBS. An and a are merely different forms of the same article. An is used when the word before which it stands begins with a vowel sound; as an ape, an hour: a when the word before which it stands begins with a consonant sound; as a man, a house, a union, a ewer.

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES.

DIRECTION. Let the student point out the nouns and articles; say which is a proper noun, which a common, which the definite, and which the indefinite article, and tell why a is employed in a given case instead of an: in short, let him apply all that can be learned from this and the section preceding; and do the same, under succeeding heads without farther notice.

The paper lies before me on the desk. He will come in an hour. A house may be large without being convenient. A year when it is past is no longer than a day. A union of many states is an empire. The folly and the vanity of the man are proverbial. A peach, a pear, an apple, or an orange, is delicious. And the sun was darkened; and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst. And there appeared a great wonder in heaven. Here is the patience of a saint: an angel could not do more. The city of Albany is the capital of this state. The city of New York is the principal city of the United States. The man who has a disposition like this, is unfit to be a member of society. That tent contains a man, a horse, an elephant, and a bear. A unanimity so striking could not fail to produce a sensation. A fault and an error are different things a fault is criminal; an error may be innocent. This

is the heir let us kill him, and the estate will be ours: so said the wicked men.

3. THE ADJECTIVE.

An adjective is a word added to a noun, pronoun, or another adjective, to express quality or relation; as a good boy, he is studious, a bright yellow all men, each man, this man.

:

OBS The first three examples, just given, express quality: the last three, rela tion; that is, the word all is used relatively to a less number, each relatively to every other; this, relatively to that, these, or those, &c.

Adjectives which express quality may be divided into three kinds: the common, the proper, and the participial.

1. A common adjective expresses a common quality, or a quality common to many things; as good, bad, rich, dark, &c. 2. A proper adjective expresses the qualities of proper names; as American, English, Platonic, Socratic, &c.

3. A participial adjective is a participle used as an adjective, as an amusing story, a moving story, a glowing picture.

OBS. The participle, as an adjective, expresses no relation to time. (See participle II.)

Adjectives which express relation, may be divided into three kinds :

1. The local, or those which express the relations of place; as eastern, western, northern, southern, inner, outer, &c.

2. Numeral, or those which express the relations of number; as,

1. The cardinal; one, two, three, &c.; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. 2. The ordinal; first, second, third, &c.; or 1st, 2d 3d,&c. 3. The multiplicative; single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, &c.

3. Pronominal, or those which express the relation of a part to a whole, of a whole to a part, of one part to another, &c.; as all men, one man, the other man, this man, that man, &c.

OBS. 1. The following list comprises most of the pronominal adjectives: each, every, either, all, any, both, few, much, many, no, none, such, same, some, other, little, first, last, former, latter, this, that, which, what. These are called pronominal, because, like a pronoun, they may be used without the noun with which they agree; but the name is not appropriate, since both the local and numeral may be used in the same manner; while the essence of a pronoun is substitution, not agreement.

OBS. 2. Adjectives, whether they express quality or relation, are often compound; as nut brown, laughter-loving, four-footed.

EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES.

A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is heavier. The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit than seven men that can render a reason. Burning lips, and a wicked heart, are like a potsherd covered with silver dross. The north wind driveth away rain, and an angry countenance, a back-biting tongue. As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is

good news from a far country. Most men will proclaim every one his own goodness; but a faithful man who can find? Who can say I have made my heart clean: I am pure from my sin? The hearing ear, and the seeing eye, the Lord hath made. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish man despiseth his mother. A true witness delivereth souls; but a deceitful witness speaketh lies. The liberal soul shall be made fat. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord; but a just weight is his delight.

Few and evil have been the days of my pilgrimage. Every nan is an accountable being. The best and wisest men are sometimes in fault. The same thing is seen elsewhere. One said this, and another that. The three rooms on the second floor, are smaller and less convenient than the others. The first years of man must make provision for the last. I prefer the shortest course, though some other may be less intricate. A certain man has written a small book, called The Four-fold State. Little children, it is the last time. Each received his penny. Thirty men carried a hundred bushels of corn.

The

The American mind is shrewd and enterprising in the highest degree. The Roman empire comprehended Europe, the western part of Asia, and the northern part of Africa. Socratic method of reasoning is that which was used by Socrates. In this free country no man is debarred from any office, however honorable or profitable. Which man it was, whether this or that, I cannot say.

4. THE PRONOUN.

A pronoun is a substitute for a noun; and is used to avoid a repetition of the noun; as at New York James embarked for Liverpool; where he arrived safely.

Of pronouns there are two kinds: the personal and relative. I. The personal are so called because they are generally substitutes for the names of persons: they are simple and compound.

1. The simple personal pronouns are, I, my or mine, me, we, our, us; thou, thy or thine, thee, ye or you, your, you; he, his, him, she, her, it, its, they, their, them.

OBS. All of these are exclusively substitutes for names of persons, except it, its, they, their, and them. Of the exceptions it and its are exclusively substitutes for things; while they, their, and them, are substitutes both for persons and things. Again, some of them are substitutes for a single or one name, as I, my, me, &c. ; while others are substitutes for several names; as we, our, us, &c. Once more, some of them, it will be observed, are substitutes for the names of persons speaking; as I, my or mine, me, we, our, us: some are substitutes for the names of persons spoken to; as thou, thy or thine, thee, ye or you, your, you: others are substitutes for the names of persons or things spoken of; as he, his, him, she, her, it, its, they, their, them.

2. The compound personal pronouns are some of those just noticed with the word self added: they are myself,

ourselves, thyself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.

II. The relative pronouns are so called because besides being substitutes for nouns, they commence a thought, or part of a sentence, relating to these nouns; which nouns, for that reason, are called their antecedents. They are, like the personal, simple and compound.

1. The simple are who, whose, whom, which, and that. Who, whose, and whom, are substitutes for the names of persons only, which, for the names of animals and things, and that, alike for the names of persons, animals, or things.

OBS. 1. Whose is sometimes used as a substitute for names of things; as, The rose whose color and fragrance you so much admired, has withered. But this is inaccurate. The proper expression would be, The rose, the odor and fragrance of which you so much admired, has withered.

OBS. 2. That is sometimes a pronominal adjective, and sometimes a conjunction. To determine when it is a relative, we have only to put who or which in the place of it; and if this substitution does not injure the sense, it is a relative.

2. The compound relative pronouns are who, which, and what. The first two are only occasionally compound: the last always.

They are compound in two ways.

1. By including, at the same time, the relative and the antecedent: i. e. the relative and the noun for which they are substituted.

Thus Tell me who it was; i. e. him that it was.

Tell me which it was; i. e. him that, or it that,

it was.

Tell me what it was; i. e. it that, or that which

it was.

OBS. It will be observed that which, when compound, has either a person or a thing for its antecedent. This may be accounted for by the fact, that formerly which was a substitute like that for both persons and things; as in the Lord's prayer, Our Father, which art in heaven.

2. Who, which, and what are made compound by the addition of ever and soever; as, whoever, whosoever; whichever, whichsoever; whatever, whatsoever.

OBS. When who and what are thus compound, they are compound in the way just mentioned also; i. e. they include the antecedent and the relative; as, Whoever takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws; i. e. He who takes, or rather, any one who takes: Seize whatever you find; i. e. Seize any thing that, or that which, or any thing which, you find.

GENERAL NOTE ON PRONOUNS.-1. All grammarians, I believe, enumerate another division of pronouns under the name of interrogative; in other words, treat who, which, and what, when used in questions, as parts of speech distinct from the relatives who, which, and what; as having no antecedents, but relating to some subsequent word or phrase in the answer; i. e. as ceasing to be pronouns, and becoming mere adjectives. No mistake it seems to me, could be more profound. It ob

viously originated in not perceiving the true character of the questions in which these words occur; namely, indefinite interrogative (See Classif. Indef. Interrog.) questions which are, strictly speaking, fragmentary declarative sentences that, when complete, express a command; as, who was it? which is the man? what are you doing? These sentences restored to the declarative form and completed, will read thus: Tell me who it was; i. e. him who it was: Tell me which it was, i.e. him which: Tell me what you are doing; i. e. it that or that which. Such being the case, who, which, and what, are as truly relative pronouns at the beginning of questions as elsewhere; and what is particularly to be observed, they are compound relative pronouns, since they always in this position include both the relative and the antecedent.

GENERAL NOTE ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.-2. Who, whose, whom, which, that, and what, besides discharging their appropriate functions as pronouns, discharge those also of conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, by connecting the parts of sentences. They form two species of connection: the close and the loose. (See close sentence, p. 71, and loose, p. 75.)

1. Examples of the close.

He who tastes them oftenest, will relish them best.

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to some vices and follies which we have committed.

The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labors of public life, have their own part assigned them to act.

There is a simplicity in the words which outshines the utmost pride of expression.

When he was told what I had done, he was satisfied.

2. Examples of the loose.

The same heard Paul speak; who steadfastly beholding him and perceiving that he had faith to be healed, said with a loud voice, Stand upright on thy feet.

All superiority and pre-eminence that one man can have over another, may be reduced to the notion of quality; which, considered at large, is either that of fortune, body, or mind. Then the disciples determined to send relief unto the brethren which dwell in Judea; which also they did.

But Christ as a son over his own house; whose house are we, if we hold fast the confidence and the rejoicing of the hope firm unto the end.

To whom God would make known what is the riches of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles; which is Christ in you, the hope of glory; whom we preach: warning every man, and teaching every man in all wisdom.