CHAPTER XIII

THE FIRST PHASE: THE SUPERINTENDENCY OF WALES C. MARTINDALE (1900 TO 1912)

The period from 1900 to 1918 may be characterized as one of transition. The influence of James, Dewey, McMurry, Eliot, and Harper in the development of psychology, in the social interpretation of Herbart, and in questioning the value of the 8-4 organization clearly mark the first decade. Thorndike and the new psychology, the beginning of the scientific movement, the

recognition of individual differences and the change in attitude towards the individual child, together with experimentation with new forms of organization are the outstanding facts of the second eight years. There were radical departures from the traditional, most of which were experimental in character, and, consequently, there could not be developed definite and clearcut policies. The entire period may be summed up as the attempt of the superintendents to fit the public school to the needs of a rapidly changing industrial society.

WALES C. MARTINDALE

Politically, this period embraces the era of national awakening and of social change, beginning with the Roosevelt administration in 1901, and continuing through the World War. The Spanish-American and the Russo-Japanese conflicts helped to

Both influenced educa

shake us out of our national isolation. tion, for in these wars it was no longer the swash-buckle hero that carried the day, but the scientifically trained man behind the gun and behind the firing line, who made use of the results of all scientific achievement. At the other end was the World War with its tremendous and meaningful national activity. The close of the war and the beginning of the reconstruction phase mark the end of the period.

Economically, the 20 years following the conflict with Spain were years of unusual industrial expansion and advance. The development of the automobile, the specialization of labor, and the extensive introduction of the single process machine resulted in an era of great prosperity to labor. Immigration increased rapidly and the racial character of the newcomers was very dissimilar to our native stock. This development in industry and the greater application of machinery to farm production resulted in a big movement cityward, which meant the building up of new towns and the growth of already existing cities.

New types of knowledge were required, new skills demanded, new governmental projects developed, all of which resulted in a great and active interest in education, intensified and magnified as a result of the world struggle. The attention of the people was directed as never before to the public schools and their demands upon the schools increased, while the attitude of assurance and complacency was changed to one of questioning and demand.

Socially, the development of the cities and the consequent cramping of space changed the character of the home and the manner of living. Boys and girls were deprived of the educational tasks in manual activities that had previously been accorded them through 'chores.' Their play spaces were decreased, while on the other hand legislation made it impossible for them to work. This serious problem was forced on the schools for solution; the result was the development of manual activities, the playground, and the social center.

These few paragraphs, sketching briefly the changes in our political, social, and industrial lives, must explain in part the

expansion of school activities during this transition period which covered the greater portion of Wales C. Martindale's administration and the entire six years of Dr. Charles E. Chadsey's.

Outside Influences. The influence of Herbart and Froebel, or rather of the Ziller interpretation of Herbart, affected Detroit educational thought deeply, just prior to 1900, particularly through the younger teachers who had been trained locally. First Miss Scott,1 through her Organic Education, and later Miss Clara Mingins and Miss Regenia Heller centered their efforts upon the "new education" and prepared the ground for later and more wide-spread changes.

John Dewey,2 philosopher, has been the foremost interpreter for education of the industrial and subsequent social changes that have taken place in American society since the SpanishAmerican war and has tried to socialize American education in the attempt to interpret to the child the conditions of modern society. Dewey believed that the chief remedy for the troubles of man is education and that the public school is the institution best fitted to work out the solution. Education was conceived as life itself, in accordance with the needs and capacities of the children. This theory of education is the further development of Herbart's "learning by doing," expressed in the social aims of present-day society. The children became acquainted with life by contact with it through simplified experiences in industrial processes and social institutions. In 1900 Dewey published School and Society, which proved to be an epoch making book. It received much praise and no little criticism, but its effects were far-reaching. In 1915 appeared Schools of Tomorrow

1

1 Miss Scott disclaimed any debt to Ziller, but of his general influence in local education there can be little doubt.

2

* Born in 1859. Head of philosophy department at University of Michigan, Dean of School of Education, University of Chicago, and now professor of philosophy at Columbia University. He first came into contact with the Detroit schools while teaching philosophy at the University of Michigan. Oliver G. Frederick later principal of the normal training school was one of his students. C. L. Spain and S. A. Courtis have built upon the Dewey foundation.

First published 1900 by the University of Chicago. Eleven impressions of the first edition were printed, and up to August 1921, four impressions of the second.

4

Printed by E. P. Dutton and Company. Now in the eleventh impression.

in which is shown what was actually happening in some of the schools that were putting the principles developed in School and Society into practice.

Edward L. Thorndike's Human Nature Club, published in 1900, was popular with the Detroit teachers. Many of his suggestions were carefully followed. His great psychological contributions, appearing in 1913, have influenced extensively the philosophy and method currently practiced in Detroit.5

Foreign Influence. The visit of a group of Detroit teachers to England, Scotland, and Germany during 1908 resulted in bringing back many new ideas in school instruction, particularly those relating to the German continuation schools, both day and evening, for commercial education and for trade extension. As a result of this visit the superintendent recommended the establishment of an industrial continuation school.

Transition Period. The feeling of Detroit toward these changes and toward the policy of the entire period was aptly expressed in 1902 by the then principal of the normal training school, Charles L. Spain:

"In education, as in politics, business and other phases of social life, we are now passing through a period of transition. Old ideas, theories, and methods have been outgrown; society is daily making new and greater demands upon the school, and in striving to adjust ourselves to these new and unusual situations, we are bewildered and overwhelmed by the multiplicity of opportunities presented. While we have abandoned the old ideas, we are not yet able to organize and command the new forces in education. In the light of these conditions to attempt to definitely outline an educational policy would be futile.

"The curriculum of today is satisfactory neither to the advocates of the old theories nor to the adherents of the new. Educational theory and practice are in an unsettled state, but we are perhaps justified in anticipating that out of this clashing of ideas and theories there will be evolved a curriculum which shall embody and harmonize the elements most vital and essential in both; such a course would approximate more closely to the ideal than anything we have had.

"In the midst of such rapidly changing conditions perhaps the most commendable course would be to avoid extremes; to scrutinize carefully

The professional training of practically the entire administrative and supervisory staff has been built around Thorndike's psychology.

For detailed reports of this visit, see Annual Report of Board of Education for 1908-9, pp. 74-194. These reports were made by Louise E. Robert, J. Remsen Bishop, Clara Beverley, and Katherine B. White.

all new theories before accepting them and by careful experimentation, to contribute our mite to the general fund of educational wisdom and experience."

Housing Conditions. During these years the schools were badly crowded. It was necessary to use basement rooms, rented quarters, and to give part-time instruction. The building program, prepared by the superintendent, was cut year after year

by both council and board of estimates. President Charles J. George expressed the situation aptly when he said:

"In the matter of school accommodations the board is powerless for the reason that while they act on actual figures and statistics in regard to the need of greater school accommodations, the common council and board of estimates cut out these items and reduced the budget for the purpose of lowering the rate of taxation."

Financial Losses. Financially, the board of education had an unfortunate experience at the outset. It had been the custom to select as treasurer a bank cashier, but the 1902 choice was unfortunately the cashier of the City Savings Bank. The failure of this bank on February 10, 1902, cost the schools $467,672.40, of which approximately one-half was later recovered. As a result, the board selected the city treasurer as the custodian and the Peninsular Savings Bank as the depository. William B. Thompson was the first treasurer so selected. In 1903 the legis