world- — an author who composed a perfect specimen of military annals in his travelling carriage [he wrote as he fought, said Quinctilian]at one time in a controversy with Cato, at another writing a treatise on punning, and collecting a set of good sayings-fighting and making love at the same moment, and willing to abandon both his empire and his mistress for a sight of the fountains of the Nile. Such did Julius Cæsar appear to his contemporaries and to those of the subsequent ages who were the most inclined to deplore and execrate his fatal genius.—Childe Harold, Note to Canto IV.

THIRD CIVIL WAR.- Meanwhile, Antony seized upon the contents of the treasury, between five and six millions sterling, and with this money bought many influential men, the veterans and the people. Cicero exhausted the stores of his eloquence in vain, for the other steadily pursued his ambitious course. The senate opposed to him the young Octavianus (afterwards called Augustus), who already possessed all the coolness, subtleness, and relentless determination of purpose which characterized the latter portion of his career. * A war now broke out, and in the course of it Antony had sufficient address to withdraw him from Cicero's party, and with Lepidus to form the

SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, 43 B. C.-The horrors of the former triumvirate were far exceeded by this, for 300 senators, 2000 knights, the best and noblest of the citizens, were proscribed. Each sacrificed his own friends to the vengeance of his colleagues, and Cicero, who had long manifested a prophetic consciousness of his peril, was among the number. With him fell the liberties of Rome; but it was not so much patriotism that pointed the sword against his life, as the personal vindictiveness of Antony which demanded the victim. The orator had no longer any power to save or destroy the government, for the republic had passed away, and a monarchy alone could succeed. Brutus and Cassius were still at the head of a powerful army; but a doubtful battle at Philippi, followed by the death of the two generals, relieved the triumvirs of all cause of fear, 42 B. c. The unsuccessful expedition of Antony into Asia, with his licentious conduct in Egypt, afforded Octavianus an xcuse for declaring him a public enemy. The wily triumvir, armed with the specious authority of the senate, went against his former associate, whom he met and defeated in a sea-fight near Actium, 31 B. C.†

The defeat of Sextus Pompeius, the resignation of Lepidus, and the death of Antony, placed the whole government in the hands of Cæsar Octavianus, now called Augustus, 27 B. C. To supply the want of money, Sylla had introduced the system of military colonies, which the new ruler extended to reward the services of his troops. The Shepherd of Virgil was not the only victim who, in the bitterness of his destitution, exclaimed

Nos patriæ fines, et dulcia linquimus arva:
Nos patriam fugimus.

* A recent historian thus describes him :-He was a youth of eighteen, small and delicate, often sick, frequently halt of one leg, timid, and speaking with such difficulty, that later in life he used to write beforehand what he desired to say to his wife; so indistinct and feeble was his voice that he was obliged to employ another to speak for him before the people. He wanted not political boldness, for he must have had much to venture to Rome to claim the succession of Cæsar, as his nephew and heir; other courage he had none; fearing the thunder, darkness, and the enemy, and implacable towards all who excited his fears.

†This battle gave occasion to a new era, called the Actian, and used by the Egyp tians. It began with the 29th August 30 B. C., the first day of their year.

AUGUSTUS, now emperor, subdued the revolted Spaniards, made peace with Ethiopia, compelled the Parthians to restore the standards they had taken from Crassus and Antony, and Germany was forced to acknowledge his power. The Roman empire at this period included the fairest portion of the world lying around the Mediterranean, enclosed by the Rhine, Danube, Euphrates, and the sandy deserts of Syria and Africa. Victorious by land and sea, its master the third time closed the temple of Janus; and it was in this moment of universal peace that JESUS CHRIST was born, four years before the common account called A. D.

SECOND LITERARY ERA- THE AUGUStan.

The history of Roman literature comprehends a space of seven centuries; from about the middle of the third century before Christ, till the taking of Rome by the Goths. The first period, from the end of the first Punic war, till the death of Sylla (241-78), saw the formation of the Latin language, and the imitation of the imperishable creations of Greek genius. The second period (78 B. C. to A. D. 14), forms the Augustan or Golden age, one of the most memorable epochs in the history of literature. The third period, or Silver age (A. D. 14-117), is remarkable not for the want of genius, but the decline of taste. The names of Tacitus, Quinctilian, the younger Pliny, and Q. Curtius adorn the annals of this century. The fourth period, or the Brazen age, extends till A. D. 410, when Rome was taken by the Goths. Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, and Jerome testify at once to the feebleness of the genius and the depraved taste of these three centuries.

The genius of Pericles was revived in Augustus; a more impracticable language than the Greek was about to give fresh laws and fresh models to posterity. The emperor had the art to conciliate the literary men of his day, and in their lavish flatteries we almost lose sight of his real character. He was ably seconded by his prime minister, Mæcenas, whose name has become a proverb. Among the distinguished writers in this age we may remark, in ELOQUENCE: Cicero, d. 43; Hortensius, Cæsar.

POETRY: Lucretius, d. 51; Virgil, d. 27; Tibullus, d. 20; Propertius, d. 16; and Horace, d. 8; of whom the last four lost their estates during the civil wars; Catullus, d. 49; Ovid, d. A. D. 17; Lucan, A. D. 65; Phædrus, Petronius, d. 67.

TRAGEDY: Seneca, d. A. D. 64.

COMEDY: Plautus, 184 B. c. Terence, 159 B. C.

SATIRE: Horace, Perseus, A. D. 62; Juvenal, A. D. 128.

HISTORY: Cæsar; C. Nepos, d. 30; Sallust, d. 34; Livy, d. A. D. 19; Curtius, Tacitus, A. D. 99; Valerius Maximus.

PHILOSOPHY: Cicero, Seneca, Celsus, d. A. D. 20.

In this sketch, the limits assigned to the Augustan era have been exceeded, but with the design of bringing together some of the most celebrated names in Roman history. There are others who wrote in Greek, but who are less worthy of mention, as their works had no direct influence on Latin Letters. They are Polybius (124 B. c.), who was with Scipio when Carthage fell; Diodorus Siculus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Strabo; Josephus; and Plutarch.

Prepare: Map of the Roman Empire.

JUDEA.

ALEXANDER JANNEUS Succeeded his brother Aristobulus 105 B. C. He was perpetually engaged in war, and by rashly provoking the king of Egypt, brought his country to the verge of ruin. His enmity to the Pharisees led to an open revolt, which, after various reverses, was quelled by the total defeat of the rebels, whom he punished with

remorseless cruelty. He died in 78, and the government was administered by his widow, Alexandra, who, following her husband's dying counsels, had become reconciled to the Pharisees. On her death in 69, this sect and the army severally put forward their favourites, Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II. A desultory war ensued, which was terminated by the interference of the Romans. Pompey decided in favour of Hyrcanus, and having captured Jerusalem in 63, sent Aristobulus with his family prisoners to Rome. The escape of the deposed monarch and his sons was the signal for another insurrection, which was soon repressed by the vigour of Crassus. Cæsar, after defeating his rival Pompey, confirmed the authority of Hyrcanus, or rather of the crafty Idumæan Antipater under his name, who managed to procure the government of Galilee for his son Herod. After the battle of Philippi, Herod used the favour of Antony to strengthen his own power. But he had still to contend with enemies: Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, renewed the struggle for sovereignty, and compelled Herod to flee to Rome. Here he obtained from Antony and Octavianus the crown of Judæa, 40, and returning to his dominions, accomplished the prophecy of Jacob foretelling the appearance of the Messiah when the sceptre should depart

from Judah.

HEROD having overthrown his rival Antigonus, 37 B. C., became confirmed as king of Judæa, and by the friendship of Augustus he afterwards added to his dominions Samaria, Galilee, Peræa, Ituræa, and Trachonitis, with Idumæa. He received the title of Great from the magnificence with which he rebuilt the temple; but his reign was so tyrannical and barbarous that he was universally detested. He put to death his beloved wife Mariamne, whose image haunted him continually and brought on temporary derangement. Among his other victims were her mother, brother, grandfather, uncle, and two sons. OUR SAVIOUR was born in the last year of his reign. Five days before Herod died, his eldest son Antipater, for attempting to poison him, was put to death; to Archelaus he assigned Judæa, Samaria, and Idumæa; and to Antipas the government of Galilee and Peræa.

CHRISTIAN ERA.

FIRST CENTURY.

ROME.-9, Defeat of Varus.-TWELVE CESARS.-79, First Eruption [recorded]

of Vesuvius.

BRITAIN.-43, Claudius in Britain.-85, Agricola.

JUDEA.-8, Archelaus banished.-41, Herod Agrippa.-Roman Procurators. -70, Jerusalem destroyed.

THE CHURCH.-30, Crucifixion of CHRIST.-40, Name of Christians-64, First Persecution-66, Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul.-95, Second Perse

cution.

INVENTIONS, &c.-16, Introduction of Silk Dresses by Tiberius.-60, Loadstone discovered.

LITERATURE, &c.-Phædrus, Celsus, Q. Curtius, Persius, Plutarch, Epictetus, Lucan, Martial, Juvenal, Seneca, Quinctilian, Tacitus, Petronius, the two Plinys, Valerius Flaccus, Josephus, Dioscorides.

ROME.

AUGUSTUS.-The Roman empire peaceably submitted to the superior talents and craft of this fortunate soldier. Exhausted by the civil wars which continued nearly a whole century, repose was eagerly sought by all parties, and a population of 120 millions gladly yielded to the dominion of one man. The Roman frontiers, extending from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine to the African deserts, were at peace, broken only by a brief war with the Germans, in which Varus and three legions were cut to pieces by Arminius, A. D. 9. Augustus never recovered his serenity of temper after that defeat. By the mildness of his government he acquired the love of the people, and by his affected submission to the senate he gained their constant support, although he had stript them of nearly all their power. Without either superior genius or extraordinary attainments, he was prudent enough to seize upon all opportunities of advancing his ambitious projects; and his principles improved when the possession of unlimited power rendered crime useless. He was still a hypocritical voluptuary; but the repose which he had procured to the empire, the flourishing state in which he left it, and the mild exercise of his authority, covered or excused his faults. His latter days were not happy. The profligacy of his daughter Julia, the ambition of his wife, and the loss of his adopted child, added poignancy to the stings of a guilty conscience. He died at Nola, A.D. 14, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and the forty-first of his reign. Read: Blackwell's Court of Augustus.

After the battle of Actium and the death of Antony, Augustus was desirous of legitimatizing his power by concealing it under legal forms. To veil his usurpation, he assumed the titles of the principal offices, using his power as censor to clear the senate of many personal enemies. All the acts of his triumvirate were annulled, as if he wished to show that he was now influenced

by different motives; and his feigned proposal of abdication was earnestly combated by his friends, who persuaded him to prolong his power during ten more years. To prove his disinterestedness, he shared the administration of the empire with the senate, leaving to it the fair provinces of Italy and Sicily: while he, by his deputies, governed the remainder. He assumed no unusual power; and yet, by the simple means of uniting all offices in his own person, he became entirely autocratical. Corresponding changes in the administration of the state ensued; and although the senate still remained the supreme council, there was another and more important one, composed of his particular friends, such as Mæcenas and Agrippa. Towards the end of his life, this body of men assumed the form of a modern cabinet (consistorium), being increased by the addition of fifteen senators, and one of each magisterial college. They were afterwards divided into three classes, having in their hands the entire government. The popular assemblies and elections still remained; but they were empty forms, the candidate nominated by the emperor never being rejected. Many salutary laws were enacted; the public edifices and roads were kept in good repair; a kind of police and night-watch were established; and communication between distant points was facilitated by the establishment of regular posts for the transmission of the imperial despatches. The finances remained nearly the same; there were, however, two treasuries, that of the prince (fiscus), the other of the senate (ærarium). Besides introducing a regular organisation into the army, Augustus divided and separated the twenty-five legions, paid them regularly, and compensated their toils by money instead of land. The term of service was also fixed, and the soldiers, instead of being turbulent and insolent, as in the civil wars, became docile and peaceable. The entire body was distributed along the frontiers in stationary camps; tranquillity was maintained in the interior by prætorian and urban cohorts. Two fleets, one at Ravenna, the other at Misenum, protected the commerce of the Mediterranean; forty vessels guarded the Euxine Sea, and armed boats secured the navigation of the Rhine and Danube.

The first

3. Tiberius, a. D. 14-37.—The reign of Augustus appears in a more favourable light when contrasted with those of his nearest successors. Tiberius was fifty-six years old when he ascended the throne, professing great unwillingness to take upon him its important cares. victim of this despotic emperor was the young Agrippa Posthumus, in whom he feared a rival; and all restraint being now removed, the tyrant gave loose to his cruel and sensual passions. He soon afterwards retired from Rome to Campania, from whose luxurious retreats issued those blood-stained decrees which the senate was so ready to enregister; and we may read in Suetonius and Tacitus of the murders committed by this body, in compliance with the imperial edicts. Sejanus, commander of the prætorian guards, and favourite of the monarch, dared to raise his thoughts to the highest station; and, to clear his way to the throne, got rid of all those whose claims were nearer than his own. Germanicus, the son of Drusus, was poisoned; his widow, Agrippina, was exiled to Pandataria, an island noted as the place of Julia's banishment; his eldest son, Nero, committed suicide to avoid the torture; and Drusus, the second son, perished of hunger in prison. But Tiberius suddenly awoke to the treachery of his minister, and he who had filled all Rome with mourning was surrendered to the popular fury. From this period the emperor, exasperated by the dangers with which he had been threatened, indulged in fresh cruelties. The wealthy inhabitants of Gaul, Spain, and Greece, were condemned to death for the merest trifles, that their riches might augment the royal treasures. His latter years were passed in scenes of infamous debauchery at Capreæ, and his death was hastened by the hands of a freedman, A. D. 37.