CHOSROES, Sovereign of Armenia, who had resisted in his native mountains with invincible courage during thirty years, fell at last by the intrigues of the Persian court. The Armenian satraps immediately implored the help of Rome in favour of his son, the young Tiridates; but the imperial city being distant, Sapor soon incorporated this state with his vast dominions.

TIRIDATES escaped from the assassins employed by the conqueror to murder him and his father, and was brought up among the Romans. After his country had borne a foreign yoke twenty-six years, he was invested with the monarchy of Armenia by Diocletian. His appearance on the frontier was welcomed with rapture; the nobles and people flew to his standard; but the Persians still maintained their ascendency, and it was not till A. D. 297 that the success of the Roman arms was confirmed by a treaty, which established him on the throne.

BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

During this century, the Northern Hive, as it was called, began to pour down its swarms upon the Roman empire.

The GOTHS, A. D. 250, passed the Danube and invaded the Roman provinces during the reign of the Emperor Decius. This great nation was of Asiatic origin,-part of the Indo-Teutonic race which had spread irregularly towards the north of Europe. Their migration in that direction took place before the period of authentic history; and when they first attract our notice, they form part of the Suevian branch, settled along the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic. Their language forms the connecting link between the Sanscrit and the modern Teutonic dialects. Their religion, preserved in the sacred books of the Eddas, was barbarous and sanguinary. ODIN, "the Mohammed of the North," was at once their supreme deity and legislator. The daring invasions of these people met with various success, but as yet had produced no lasting effect.

The province of Gaul was invaded by the FRANKS or Freemen, a. D. 256, a confederation of many German tribes on the Rhine and the Weser.* The former river proved an imperfect barrier to their enterprising spirit. At length they crossed the Pyrenees, and even in the fifth century the ruins of magnificent cities recorded their destructive hostilities.

The ALLEMANNI, A. D. 259, were formed at the Tencteri and Usipetæ (Westphali). They were well trained to fight on horseback, and from their renown became a centre around which gathered a multitude of German tribes. This united people are supposed to be included under the different names of Suevi, Marcomanni, and Allemanni. Having invaded Gaul and Italy, they displayed their banners within sight of Rome; but the vigour of the senate compelled them to retreat, though they returned to their own country laden with booty.

THE CHURCH.

So early as the end of the second century or the beginning of the third, the Christian faith had gradually spread to the middle and higher ranks,—when broke out the

*The tribes were these:-1. The Chauci; 2. The Sicambri; 3. The Attuari; 4. Bruc 'eri: 5. The Chamavii; 6. The Catti; 7. The Salii and Cherusci.

FIFTH PERSECUTION, A. D. 202.—The Emperor Severus was at first not unfavourable to the believers; but probably considering them as much political enemies as religious schismatics, he published his sanguinary edicts against them, which forbade, in a particular manner, all assemblies, public or private. While thus occupied, he celebrated the secular games, which, like most other pagan festivals, were followed by violent explosions of fury against the Christians. In Alexandria especially the persecution raged; almost all the clergy in that city being massacred or compelled to flee. Origen, as yet quite young, was alone charged with the continuance of the sacred functions; nor was his office without trouble and danger, since he was more than once on the point of receiving the crown of martyrdom. At Carthage, Rome, and Lyons, the faithful were severely afflicted; though it should be observed that the traces of this persecution in the West are not distinct.

SIXTH PERSECUTION, A. D. 235.-The church enjoyed a period of repose twenty-four years, but the accession of the brutal Maximin was the signal for new trials. A promiscuous massacre of the Christians, including every rank and both sexes, lasted during the whole of his reign.

SEVENTH PERSECUTION, A. D. 250.-The most formidable enemies of the Church were the heretics, who in the second and third centuries were very numerous. The Marcionites, the Manicheans, and the Arians, raised those important questions which long divided the Christian world, and are in some respects perpetuated to our times.

Philip, the Arabian, among some writers passed for a convert, but his successor Decius, alarmed by the miseries of the empire and his own precarious station, thought that the gods would strengthen his crown if he restored to their deserted altars the honours which had surrounded them in more prosperous days. For this purpose he began a bloody persecution, which extended over the whole empire. Christianity had already gained such strength, and its partisans were so numerous, that the struggle between it and paganism assumed almost the appearance of a civil war. The old creed had still on its side the majority of the population, the army, and the public authorities; but although many Christians apostatized, others were not wanting to seal their testimony with their blood, and fortify by their courage the trembling hearts of their brethren. Carthage and Alexandria, in particular, were the scene of much suffering; but Origen escaped, and, in the midst of cruel tortures prolonged during several days, gloried in the pains which proved his sincerity.

EIGHTH PERSECUTION, A. D. 258.-Valerian's persecution was brief, for he had begun his reign by acts of clemency, and when holding the office of censor, expressed his opinion that Christianity exercised a favourable influence on public morals. His changed conduct must be attributed to the sorcerer Macrianus, who had a complete mastery over his mind. The first edict left the community in peace, but subjected all nonconforming bishops to the penalty of death, as also the confiscation of their churches and endowments. Among the victims were St. Lawrence, St. Stephen, and St. Cyprian of Carthage.

NINTH PERSECUTION, A. D. 272.—Aurelian was arrested in his career -while in the act of signing an edict against the Christians-by the falling of a thunderbolt at his feet. But the end of his reign witnessed

many severities against the new sect in consequence of his orders, and St. Denis of France was put to death.

TENTH PERSECUTION, OR THE ERA OF MARTYRS, A. D. 285.—A final and vigorous effort was made to crush the new religion by Diocletian, whose wife and daughter are said to have been converted. The first edict against the Christians was published 24th February 303. By By it the churches were ordered to be demolished, and the sacred books to be delivered up, under pain of death, and publicly burnt. All assemblies for religious worship were prohibited, the property of the church was confiscated, and its members were put beyond the protection of the law. In subsequent edicts he declared his intention of abolishing the name of Christian; but he contributed only to its further propagation. The Cæsar Galerius was the instigator of these cruel measures, which were much increased by an accidental fire that broke out in the palace at Nicomedia. GALERIUS, the most implacable enemy of Christianity, having been raised to the throne of the East in consequence of the abdication of Diocletian, the persecution was continued with unmitigated severity. But the fervent spirit of religion was far from yielding to this violent shock. The believers still assembled regularly in private meetings; and though they were deprived of the most eminent of their body, their numbers preserved them from extermination. In the seventh year of his reign, Galerius was smitten with a loathsome disease, the lower region of his body being consumed by a fetid ulcer, or in the language of scripture, "he was eaten of worms," like Herod the Great, and, in later times, Philip II. of Spain. Physicians, oracles, and even the god of medicine himself, were applied to in vain; no remedy could diminish the virulence of a malady which had already reached the vitals. Harassed by the recollection of the tortures he had inflicted, he thought to allay the anguish of his body by recalling the edicts against Christianity, and by allowing the free and public exercise of its ceremonies; but the hand of death was upon him, and in a few days he expired, 311. The heathens themselves, it is said, were astonished at this signal interposition of the Almighty in favour of his worshippers. In the dominions of Maximin the persecution was still continued, nor did it stop until shortly before his decease, when his people had been diminished by famine and pestilence, and his power was threatened by Constantine. In the death of this monarch also the Christians of that age beheld the finger of God, for he expired in the most excruciating torments, his body being consumed by an internal fire, 313.

It is impossible to calculate the number of victims who perished in this persecution: a whole legion, consisting of six thousand men, are said to have suffered in the valleys of the Alps.

Diocletian's fiery sword

Work'd busy as the lightning: then was Alban tried,
England's first martyr.

A multitude of the believers, who took refuge among the German tribes, were received with kindness; and the Goths were said to have been indebted to a young female captive for their first knowledge of the gospel.

Read: Milman's History of Christianity, book ii. c. 9.

FOURTH CENTURY.

ROME.-306, Constantine.-330, Constantinople.-361, Julian.-364, Division of the Empire between Valens and Valentinian.-378, Battle of Adrianople. -379, Theodosius the Great.-391, Eugenius, Emperor.

THE CHURCH.-Establishment of Christianity.-318, Arian Heresy.-325, Nicene Council.-390, Theodosius prohibits Paganism.

INVENTIONS.—385, Saddles.-398, Aerometers by Hypatia. -400, Gothic Architecture (?).

LITERATURE, &c. -Eusebius, Chrysostom, L. Lactantius, Augustin,Claudian.

ROME.

Constantine, A. D. 306.-After the abdication of Diocletian, Constantius and Galerius ascended the vacated thrones; the former governing, under his new title of emperor, the provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain; the latter retaining those of the East. Two new Cæsars were appointed, Maximin and Severus; and according to the arrangement of Diocletian, the latter should have recognised the authority of the Emperor of the West. But he was entirely devoted to Galerius, who, reserving for himself the countries lying between Italy and Syria, exerted an equal influence over him and Maximin, and by their means became master of nearly three-fourths of the empire.

Constantine, the son of Constantius, was a Dacian by birth, and had attained eighteen years when his father was nominated Cæsar. He did not immediately profit by this elevation, but followed Diocletian and signalized himself in the Egyptain wars, in which, besides rising to the station of tribune of the first order, he so far enjoyed the good will of the army as to excite the jealousy of Galerius. Proceeding to Britain, he rejoined his father, on whose death at York, in 306, he was proclaimed Augustus by the soldiers, which title however was not confirmed by the emperor, but that of Cæsar substituted, with full authority over all the transalpinė provinces. Shortly after the elevation of Constantine, an insurrection broke out in Rome on the imposition of additional taxes; when, encouraged by the connivance of the senate and the weakness of the civic guards, the populace elected Maxentius, the son of Maximian, in place of the absent Galerius, almost without opposition. This change drew the father from his retreat to aid Maxentius, by his counsels, and thereby to strengthen his party. Severus, who wished to assert the authority of Galerius, was besieged in Ravenna, and soon afterwards suffered death; and the latter was forthwith compelled to retire from Italy, which he had unsuccessfully invaded. Licinius was now elevated to the rank of Augustus, with the government of Illyria, while Maximin, envious of those new honours, assumed the same dignity in Africa, when was seen the strange circumstance of six emperors presiding at once over the Roman world.* Maximian was the first to lose the title, his son being unwilling to see the exercise of power controlled by his father. Galerius passed his time in useful improvements throughout his

* Maximian, Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius, Galerius, and Constantine.

dominions, having wisely abandoned the design of uniting the empire in his own hands; but scarcely had he expired when the two emperors, whom he had invested with the purple, shared his territory; the provinces of Asia falling to Maximin, and those of Europe augmenting the government of Licinius. Maxentius, who had been raised to the purple by the zeal of the senate and people, soon forgot how he had obtained his crown, and conducted himself even in Rome, in a tyrannical manner. His cruelty was especially manifested after the fall of the usurper Alexander, who, having revolted in Africa, was speedily vanquished. That province was mercilessly ravaged in punishment for the insurrection, and at home the emperor's exactions and unjust condemnations were greatly multiplied. Constantine freed Italy from this despot, whom he defeated at the gates of the capital, and who was drowned in the Tiber as he fled from the field of battle, 312.*

The conqueror entered Rome amid the acclamations of the people and senate, who assigned him by decree the first place among the Augusti. Some time after. Licinius, his ally, added new provinces to those he already possessed. Having been attacked by Maximin during the winter of 313, the promptitude and superior skill of Licinius gave him the advantage; and his enemy, who was defeated, gained more celebrity by the swiftness of his flight than by his courage in the field. Twenty-four hours after his discomfiture, Maximin was seen pale and trembling, and stripped of his imperial ornaments, at Nicomedia, about one hundred and fifty miles from the scene of his ruin. Licinius did not imitate Constantine in the use he made of his victory, but stained it by putting to death men, women, and children, partisans of the vanquished prince. The Roman people now had but two masters; yet from the disposition of each it was not possible that there could be any rest until one should be destroyed. Constantine was young, active, and ambitious, and would not have waited for an opportunity to begin the war, even had not the other afforded one by engaging in a conspiracy against him. Two battles lost at Cibalæ and Mardia compelled Licinius to yield five provinces, and to be satisfied with Thrace and the East, allowing Illyria to pass over to the victor, 314. Nine years after, he was entirely deprived of his power and banished to Thessalonica, where he was put to death; and his rival who had publicly embraced Christianity ten years before, became sole master of the empire, 323. After his victory, the successful monarch had to contend against the Goths and Sarmatians, the former of whom were bound to furnish a body of 40,000 auxiliaries. But one of the most important results of this reign was the foundation of a new capital. A Christian court might seem to be misplaced in Pagan Rome, besides which the necessity of strengthening the frontiers against the Goths and Persians, while it made some change necessary, seemed to indicate the position of Constantinople.

The latter part of the life of Constantine was unhappy: his son Crispus was put to death on the accusation of his step-mother Fausta, who was herself not long after convicted of adultery and suffocated in a

* While Constantine was marching to Rome, previous to the decisive battle jus. mentioned, a cross is said to have appeared in the heavens at noon-day, on which was the inscription, In hoc signo vinces. In commemoration of this event, the cross or labarum became the sacred standard of the army.