Britain, and Holland. Various bloody but undecisive campaigns were fought; and though unable to command that success which his military talents deserved, he had the rare fortune of appearing always as formidable after defeat as he had been before action. This contest conferred a high reputation on the naval and military force of Holland; but she had at the same time to lament an increase of public debt and the diminution of trade; while the peace of Ryswick, 1697, by which it was terminated, secured to her no advantages. Nevertheless, the states readily became parties to the Grand Alliance, 1701; and William was once more preparing to lead the armies of Europe against the French, when his death in the same year left his plans to be carried out by more fortunate leaders.

Holland, however, did not neglect this opportunity of recurring to the old government of 1650: no new stadtholder was appointed; the supreme authority was retained by the states-general, and Heinsius, the grand-pensioner, was intrusted with the active direction of affairs. This great man amply justified the confidence reposed in him; he ably cooperated with Marlborough and Prince Eugene in the long contest which followed; and to his assistance and counsels were owing in no small degree those masterly combinations which resulted in the splendid triumphs of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. The peace of Utrecht, 1713, which secured to Holland a strong barrier of frontier fortresses, also saw the republic raised to her highest point of influence and greatness. Her powerful enemy had been humbled to the dust; her commerce had revived amidst the struggle; her finances were placed on a satisfactory footing; and surrounding states regarded her with envy or respect.

For a period of thirty years after this treaty, the United Provinces enjoyed the unwonted blessing of peace, during which the states devoted their entire energies to internal reforms. They received into their protection the persecuted sectaries of France, Germany, and Hungary; and though the principle of toleration might seem to be violated in the expulsion of the Jesuits, 1731, a Protestant country cannot well be blamed for a measure afterwards universally imitated even by Catholic states. In 1732, the whole nation was overwhelmed with alarm, by the discovery that the beams and other wood-work employed in the construction of their dikes had been eaten through by some unknown species of marine grub; but the providential occurrence of a hard frost, by destroying these formidable insects, freed the country from a danger greater even than another war. The elements of a fresh contest were already in existence. In 1729, the states had been induced to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and on the death of Charles VI., 1740, they at once joined England in aid of his daughter, Maria Theresa, with a reinforcement of 20,000 men and a large subsidy. These allies gained the battle of Dettingen, 1743; but Holland was once more exposed to invasion after the severe repulse at Fontenoy, 1744. In these circumstances, she again had recourse to the old expedient of elevating the house of Orange; and, accordingly, the representative of that illustrious family, WILLIAM IV., who had married a daughter of George II., was appointed stadtholder, and the right of hereditary succession vested in the male ana female line, 1747.

The contest was concluded by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748,

without loss to the country; but, three years afterwards, amid her reviving prosperity, Holland had to lament the death of her young chief. His son, WILLIAM V., then an infant, succeeded under the guardianship of his mother; and, during his minority, the nation was able to remain neutral amid the storms of the seven years' war. This prince assumed the government in 1766; two years later, he married the Princess of Prussia, niece of Frederick the Great. But the anti-Orange faction had in the mean time again attained the ascendency, and a rankling jealousy of England sprung up in the national mind. This feeling led the Dutch to give an underhand aid to the revolted colonies in America, as also to join the armed neutrality of the northern powers; and the British, in return, declared war against them in 1780. In the four years' struggle that followed, Holland suffered severely in her commerce, and lost many valuable colonies, which were retained by Britain at the peace of 1784; while the emperor also took the opportunity to dismantle the barrier towns, 1781. The national discontent thus awakened, and the new theories set afloat during the contest, gave increased activity to the republican party; and, in 1787, the states actually deprived William of all his appointments, while his consort, who had endeavoured to reconcile the hostile parties, was unjustifiably arrested and treated as a prisoner. The King of Prussia, in his sister's name, demanded an ample satisfaction; on the refusal of which, a Prussian army of 20,000 men, under the Duke of Brunswick, marched into Holland. Amsterdam was besieged and forced to capitulate, when all the resolutions that had been taken against the stadtholder were annulled, and he was reinstated in his former authority. But this period of recovered power was of short duration; an alliance with Prussia and England in 1788 being the ostensible cause of a declaration of war on the part of France in 1793. At the head of an army of 100,000 men, the republican general, Pichegru, soon gained possession of the chief places in Flanders, 1794; and, taking advantage of an unusually severe winter, which froze the canals and arms of the sea, drove the Duke of York and his army from point to point, and speedily became master of the whole country. The Prince of Orange presented himself to the states-general at the Hague, into whose hands he resigned his dignities and retired to England; and the United Provinces now changed their long-cherished form of government, and even their name, receiving, at the command of their Gallican masters, the novel designation of the Batavian Republic, 1795.

DENMARK.

The treaty of Stockholm, 1720, having secured to Frederick IV. all he could reasonably desire, the remainder of his life was passed in unmolested repose, during which he was enabled by economy and wise financial measures to reduce somewhat the extraordinary burdens which the war had rendered necessary. The most striking events that followed were the closing of the trade with Hamburg in 1726, and the occurrence of a fire in Copenhagen, which consumed about sixteen hundred and forty houses, thereby nearly destroying that capital, 1728. Frederick died in 1730, in the sixtieth year of his age, having the character of a wise and brave prince, fond of enterprise, but strongly disposed to promote the welfare of his subjects. His son and successor, CHRISTIAN

VI., one of the most popular and patriotic sovereigns of Denmark, im mediately abolished various monopolies in the sale of wine, brandy, salt, and tobacco, which had pressed heavily on the people; and with the view of still further stimulating commerce, he established the Asiatic Company in 1732, and four years after re-opened the trade with Hamburg. At the same time, he renewed treaties of amity with Sweden and England, for the mutual protection of their dominions; with the view of promoting arts and manufactures, workmen were brought from various countries to instruct the people; and the establishment of a royal bank proved of great advantage to the mercantile classes in the kingdom. Notwithstanding the repeal of various oppressive taxes, Christian contrived to maintain his fleet and army on a respectable footing, as well as to restore the militia, which had been abolished; and, although devoted to a pacific policy, he was thus enabled to assume a vigorous warlike attitude, when events rendered it necessary. This prince also established regulations for the better celebration of religious service, and enjoined upon the great landed proprietors the obligation of founding a school in every village. The magnificent palace of Christiansburg, and the docks of Christianshaven, are among the chief monuments of his reign.

FREDERICK V., 1746, succeeded to the virtues as well as the crown of his father; and his internal management of affairs forms a brilliant sequel to the measures of that excellent prince, in which he was ably seconded by his minister, the great Bernstorf. Commerce and manufactures accordingly prospered more rapidly than ever, the national shipping being fully doubled in this reign; intellectual culture became widely diffused; economy and judicious regulations placed the finances in a highly satisfactory condition; while various legislative measures provided for the more prompt and regular administration of justice. In 1743, the king espoused Louisa, daughter of George II. of England, an estimable personage; and, in 1749, the birth of a prince-royal diffused universal joy throughout the nation. On the death of the queen in 1751, another marriage was concluded with Juliana Maria of BrunswickWolfenbuttel, a lady greatly inferior in every respect to her predecessor, and whose intrigues became afterwards the source of much evil in the reign of her step-son. In the wars which desolated the rest of Europe, Frederick took no part; and though certain claims put forth to the duchy of Sleswick by the Czar Peter III. led to military demonstrations in 1762, the dispute was amicably settled with Catherine II. in the same year. The rest of his life was spent in encouraging the arts and sciences; and to him the Danish theatre is indebted for its origin.

CHRISTIAN VII., 1766, succeeded his father at the age of seventeen, and, though inheriting little either of his talents or virtues, signalized the commencement of his reign by a measure for the gradual abolition of vassalage throughout the kingdom. Immediately on his accession, he espoused Caroline Matilda, sister of George III. of England, an amiable and accomplished princess, whom he nevertheless treated with great harshness; and, in 1768, leaving her behind him, he set out on a tour of pleasure through Europe, in the course of which he received into his favour the celebrated Struensee, a physician of Ancona. On his return, this individual was raised to the dignity of a count, and to the office of prime-minister, in which capacity he displayed considerable

administrative ability. His influence over Christian enabled him to reconcile that fickle prince to his consort; and, with her approbation, he afterwards introduced many reforms, beneficial in themselves, but which from their precipitancy irritated both the clergy and nobles. In these circumstances, the queen-dowager and her son Frederick plotted his ruin; several injurious, and it would seem false accusations, were set afloat against both him and her majesty; and in 1772, the king was prevailed on to sign an order for the arrest of Caroline and her accomplices. Struensee was thrown into prison and soon after beheaded, and the queen died in banishment at Zell in Hanover, 1775.

For some years the queen-dowager and her faction possessed the entire control of affairs, Christian himself having fallen into a state of imbecility; but, in 1784, his son Frederick, then only sixteen years old, succeeded in obtaining the regency, and raised Count Bernstorf, nephew of the former minister of that name, to the chief direction of affairs. The young prince exercised his authority with great moderation, firmness, and equity; a number of abuses which had crept into the government were reformed; and neutrality was maintained in the wars of 1788 and 1793. In 1808, he succeeded his father by the title of FREDERICK VI.

SWEDEN.

CHARLES XII., 1697, was only fifteen years old when he ascended the throne; and his extreme youth tempted three powerful neighbours to conspire in order to effect the dismemberment of his states, or at least the recovery of territories wrested from them by the valour of his predecessors. These aggressors were Frederick IV. of Denmark, Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, and Peter I. of Russia; and, in the year 1700, they simultaneously invaded the Swedish dominions at three different points. The young monarch renewed an alliance with England and Holland, from whom he received reinforcements, and putting himself at the head of his army, resolved on a vigorous defence of the kingdom. He immediately sailed with his troops for Copenhagen, attacked that city, and in a few weeks obliged the King of Denmark to sign the peace of Travendahl. He next turned his attention to the Russians, who were besieging Narva, a town in Ingria; and on the 30th November, having under him only 8000 soldiers, totally routed them, though ten times that number. Augustus, who had fruitlessly invested Riga, now only remained: the Swedes passed the Dwina in spite of all opposition, and, in an incredibly short space of time, became masters of the whole of Courland. The youthful conqueror now openly declared his intention of dethroning the King of Poland, and conferring the sovereignty of that country upon Stanislaus Leezinski, palatine of Posnania; a design in which he was seconded by several discontented noblemen, and which Augustus in vain endeavoured to avert by negotiation. In 1702, that ruler was defeated, after a severe contest, at Clissau, and at Pultusk in the following year; the Polish diet proclaimed Stanislaus in 1704; and at the beginning of 1707, the other was compelled to make a formal resignation of his crown, with permission merely to retain his Saxon dominions.

The eyes of all Europe were now directed towards the camp of Charles at Leinsic, where, at the head of 50,000 veterans, he received ambassa

dors from the principal powers, and even dictated to the emperor conditions by which the Protestants in Silesia were secured in the free exercise of their religion. But he felt little interest in the politics of central Europe, his views being turned towards the north, where his great object was the dethronement of his rival, Peter of Russia. He accordingly set out for Muscovy in September 1707, defeated the czar in the following May on the banks of the Berezina, and, by the end of September, penetrated as far as Smolensk. The approaching rigours of the season, however, compelled him to abandon his design of marching upon Moscow, and to retreat towards the Ukraine, where Mazeppa, hetmann of the Cossacks, had promised to join him. Here Charles passed the winter, during which, besides the loss of his artillery and wagons, he had to lament the interception of a reinforcement of 15,000 men, and the entire dispersion of his expected allies. In the spring of 1709, with an army greatly reduced in number, he was compelled to give battle to 70,000 Russians led by Peter in person, under the walls of Pultowa, which ended in the total defeat of his brave followers, 9000 of whom perished on the field of battle. This decisive event annihilated the ascendency of Sweden: the vanquished monarch took refuge in Turkey; Denmark and Poland annulled the treaties they had made; Augustus returned to Warsaw; and the conqueror kept possession of Livonia.

Instead of immediately returning to defend his dominions, Charles unaccountably persisted in remaining five years in his Turkish asylum, spending the time in fruitless intrigues to foment a war between that country and Russia, while his inveterate enemies in the north were ravaging his continental provinces, and destroying his best troops. At length, in October 1714, he left Turkey, and crossing Hungary and Germany, arrived at Stralsand, where he immediately took the field against Prussia, Denmark, Saxony, and Russia. After various military operations, he succeeded, through the exertions of his minister, Baron de Gortz, in forming an alliance with Peter; but he still pursued the war against the Danes, and in 1718 sat down before Frederickshall in the middle of winter, where his adventurous career was terminated by a shot from one of the enemy's batteries. This event produced an immediate revolution in the aspect of affairs. The senate, accusing Gortz as the author of the calamities afflicting the nation, had that minister tried and executed; while the late king's sister, ULRICA ELEANORA, was raised to the throne, but compelled to renounce its absolute prerogatives as well as the hereditary right of succession. Treaties of peace were at the same time set on foot: in 1719 the duchies of Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover, in consideration of one million of rix-dollars; a similar payment of two millions secured Pomerania-Anterior to Prussia, 1720; Denmark agreed to restore some of her conquests on receiving a pecuniary compensation, and retaining her right to the Sound dues, Augustus was acknowledged the legitimate sovereign of Poland, to the exclusion of Stanislaus; while Russia, after some renewed military operations extremely disastrous to Sweden, signed a peace at Nystadt, 1721, by which she obtained Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Viborg, and part of Carelia, but agreed to resign Finland, and pay two millions of rix-dollars.

Previously to the conclusion of these pacific measures, the queer had resolved on having her husband, FREDERICK of Hesse-Cassel, associated