The four most celebrated of the public games of Greece were the Nemean held in Argolis; the Isthmian, in Corinth; the Pythian, at Delphi; and the Olympic; in which a simple wreath of laurel or of olive was given to the successful competitors. The value of the prize was enhanced by its being awarded in the presence of the whole Greek nation, and by the honours which his native city paid to the victor who had contributed to its glory. If an Athenian, he was entitled to a seat in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, to the chief post in battle.

The Eleans were the sole managers of the Olympic games, and during their celebration a kind of sacred truce was preserved. The first contentions were in the foot-race alone; afterwards were added wrestling, leaping, throwing the quoit and javelin, boxing, with horse and chariot racing. In the Pentathlon five gymnastic exercises were combined. At Olympia were read fragments of the history of Herodotus, and while listening to his enchanting legends, Thucydides caught that inspiration which led him not only to excel his master, but to attain a point of great excellence. Here also Lysias recited his harangue on the fall of the tyrant Dionysius. Such exhibitions had the effect of transforming social pleasures into intellectual enjoyments.

ASSYRIA.

The annals of the first Assyrian empire are involved in obscurity not less difficult to remove than that of Egypt; for the notices respecting the origin of the latter power as well as of Babylon, which are furnished in the Bible, are not sufficient to complete a continuous history. At the epoch of the Dispersion, Ashur was established in Shinar (Babylonia) but soon after, advancing northward, he founded the cities of Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen. About the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, Nimrod settled in Babylonia, from which he is supposed by many historians to have expelled Ashur. He converted the tower of Babel into a fortress, by surrounding it with strong walls, from whence he kept the neighbouring country in subjection. He next passed into Assyria, and confined Ashur within a narrower territory. In the rabbinical books Nimrod is represented as the inventor of fire-worships, and the first persecutor of the religion of the true God.

After this conqueror we have no certain information of the government of the Assyrians; and the period intervening between him and Ninus is filled by some writers with a list of thirteen kings, divided into two dynasties. Of these, Evechous, the son and successor of Nimrod, is the first; Chomas-Bel, the next, is perhaps the same as Bel-chamas, the second of the Babylonian divinities; Por or Pong is considered to he Baal-Peor or Belphegor. The name of Chinzir, the seventh king, closes the first series. After a reign of forty-five years he was dethroned by the Arabs, and his monarchy being dismembered, was formed into the kingdoms of Shinar, Elam, Ellasar, and some others mentioned in the Book of Genesis, in connexion with the history of Abraham.-The second dynasty, composed of six Arabian kings, occupied the throne 215 years; and the last sovereign of this race was Nabonadius, dethroned by Belus, who had already governed part of Assyria during thirty years. He reigned twenty-five years longer over the united kingdom, and dying, was succeeded by his son Ninus, 1968 B. c. (l'Art de vérifier les Dates).

The first conquests of Ninus were over the Babylonians, whose cities he easily reduced. After Media and Armenia had submitted to his arms, he experienced little opposition in' the rest of Asia, excent fr»

the Bactrians, who were at last subdued in consequence of the wise suggestions of his wife Semiramis. The history of the early life of this remarkable woman is mingled with fable; and her elevation to the imperial throne can only be compared to that of Catherine I. of Russia. She had no sooner succeeded her husband than she endeavoured to eclipse his glory; and as he had rebuilt in a very magnificent manner, the ancient city of Nineveh on the banks of the Tigris, she determined that Babylon should surpass it in splendour. In the execution of her great project, two millions of workmen were employed, and the city, finished in the space of two years, was ever after considered one of the wonders of the world. Nor did she limit her cares to this city alone; many others were built or improved on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. In all parts of her dominions she formed aqueducts, so valuable in hot countries, pierced or levelled mountains, filled up valleys, and opened highways in every direction. Even at the present day the communication between Bagdad and Hamadan is maintained through one of the roads constructed by this celebrated queen. After a reig. ́f forty-two years, and at the age of sixty-two, Semiramis resigned the sceptre to her son Ninyas, who, it is said, spent his life in indolence and retirement,—a course imitated by all his successors till the reign of Sardanapalus. One circumstance alone breaks through the silence of this long interval. Tentamus, the twentieth successor of Ninyas, sent assistance to Priam; and Plato, from whom we learn this fact, adds that Troy was a dependency of Assyria. The conquests of Sesostris king of Egypt, occurred probably under the government of these descendants of Ninyas; he contented himself with levying heavy tributes, leaving the sovereign power as he found it.

Sardanapalus, with whom the first Assyrian empire terminated, surpassed all his predecessors in luxury and voluptuousness. His excesses rendered him contemptible in the eyes of his subjects, and inspired thoughts of revolt in the mind of Belesis, a priest of Babylon, who associated with him in his plot Arbaces, the governor of Media. At the first news of the projected insurrection, the king concealed himself in the most retired chambers of his palace; but soon regaining courage, he collected an army of faithful soldiers, and defeated the insurgents in three desperate battles. He was at last compelled to return to Nineveh, which held out during two years; when the Tigris, swollen by unusual rains, overflowed its banks and destroyed great part of the walls. To prevent his falling into the hands of the enemy, and to efface the memory of a shameful life by a vainglorious death, he caused a vast pile to be raised, on which he burnt himself, together with his wives and treasures, 759 B. C.

Three empires shared the vast dominions of the successors of Ninus: -1, The Assyrian monarchy of Babylon founded by Belesis, which, after lasting about 220 years, was conquered by Cyrus, 538 B. c. ;—2, The ancient kingdom of the Ninevite Assyrians, perpetuated by Pul, and which, in little more than 130 years, was reunited to Babylon;3, The state of the Medes, indebted for its independence to Arbaces, and which, becoming monarchical under Deioces, continued about 220 years. and was at last united to the vast empire of Persia.

It has been thought, and not without sufficient reason, that the enterprise of Belesis and Arbaces has been confounded with that of Nabopolassar and Cyaxares against Chynaladan king of Assyria, and which will be treated of in the seventh century. It is certain that the revolution which destroyed Sardanapalus, called also Empacmes or Eupalis, did not entirely destroy the Assyrian empire; and that it scarcely did more than cause the dismemberment of several provinces, the chief of which were Babylon and Media. It would be useless to endeavour to reconcile the contradictory accounts which the ancients have transmitted to us of the last days of Sardanapalus. It seems, however, to be established by modern critics, that there were two persons of that name; that Nineveh was not destroyed; and even that Sardanapalus, surviving his degradation, resigned the government to the hands of his son Pul, and passed the remainder of his days in luxurious retirement.

*

SECOND EMPIRE OF NINEVEH.-Pul, the first king of the new empire of Assyria, was the son of Sardanapalus, and is known to have interfered in the civil dissensions of the kingdom of Israel. His successors were steady in his course of policy, which was destined at no distant period to open the road to Egypt. He has been thought to be the Belus cf profane history, and the founder of the Assyrian monarchy. TiglathPileser, his son and successor, 747 B. c., a warlike prince, endeavoured to repair the losses which his territories had suffered during the last revolution; and, with this view, he invaded Palestine, destroyed the kingdom of Damascus, and transported the unfortunate inhabitants of that city into his own states, 740. Ahaz also, king of Judah, was compelled to pay him tribute. He died after a reign of nineteen years, and was succeeded by Shalmaneser (728) who surpassed the exploits of his father. Having completed the conquest of Israel, he led Hoshea into captivity, the last sovereign of that schismatical kingdom; and after reducing the various states of Phoenicia, he compelled their inhabitants to pay tribute. He died in 714, and was followed on the throne by his son Sennacherib, the Sargon of Isaiah. He began his reign by the invasion of Judea; but, while threatening Jerusalem, his army was smitter with pestilence or by the simoom ("the angel of death," as it is called by the Arabs), and 185,000 men perished in a single night. Rendered ferocious by his disgrace, he exercised the cruelest tyranny on his subjects. The Jews were particularly exposed to his anger. He daily massacred great numbers of them, and left their bodies in the fields without sepulture. Becoming odious to his family his two elder sons conspired and slew him, 707 B. C.; but fleeing into Armenia, they left the throne to the youngest, Esarhaddon.

SECOND EMPIRE OF BABYLON. — Nothing Nothing is more obscure than the beginning of this empire, which, until the year 721, had no communication with the Jewish people. Belesis, generally considered as the first king of this new monarchy, was, according to Diodorus, merely governor of Babylon under Arbaces the Median. It is contended by many mo dern historians that he and his successor Nabonassar are one and the same person; an opinion which is scarcely tenable. The name of Belesis is not found in the list of Babylonian kings given by Ptolemy. Some writers believe that he formed the province into a sort of republic. with himself at its head, but dependent on the King of Nineveh. The actions of Nabonassar are entirely unknown, except that he is reported

* See vol. xxi. of the Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

C.

o have destroyed the monuments of his predecessors in the foolish hope of passing for the first king of the Babylonian nation. The epoch which bears his name, and which was adopted on the introduction of the Egyptian year, begins with 747 B. c.* Beyond their names we know but little of the next four kings, Nadius, Chinzirus, Porus, and Jugeus. These were succeeded in 721 by Merodach-Baladan, who formed an alliance with the king of Judah. After the disasters of Sennacherib, Merodach endeavoured to rescue his kingdom from its state of dependence on Assyria; but in this he was unsuccessful, if we may judge by the weakness and disorder of the monarchy during the reigns of his five successors in the short space of seventeen years.

LYDIA.

The Lydians were a Pelasgian race, originally called Mæonians, from their first monarch Mæon, the epoch of whose reign has been fixed at 1545 B. C. Three dynasties occupied in succession the throne of Lydia: the Atyades, the Heraclidæ, and the Mermnadæ. The traditions of mythology had placed a portion of the adventures of Hercules in that country; and assigned it as the birthplace of Marsyas, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, Arachne, and Omphale. A branch of the Heraclidæ succeeded the Atyades in 1232, and about 727 B. C. they were followed by the Mermnadæ, of whom Gyges, grandson of Mermnas, was the first, who dethroned and murdered Candaules. The history of the kingdom now began to separate from fable, as it gradually increased in riches and importance; and after the expulsion of the Scythians, who in the 7th century had invaded and temporarily possessed it, Alyattes ruled over the greater part of Asia Minor. A war soon afterwards arose between Media and Lydia, during which Babylon remained neuter, and acted as mediator in the contest. A memorable battle between the two nations was interrupted by a total eclipse of the sun, 30th September 601 B.C. Cræsus, before ascending the throne, had been associated with his father in the government. Wise but ambitious, he greatly extended the power of the kingdom, and reduced all the Greek colonies of Asia. Solon the philosopher, about 575, and the fabulist Æsop, were entertained at his court. He declared war against the celebrated Cyrus, who had united the Median and Persian monarchies, 559 B. C.; but although assisted by Egypt and Babylon, he was unsuccessful; his capital, Sardis, was taken, and himself made prisoner, 546 B. c. The whole of the Lydian dominions fell into the hands of the conqueror, and the nation never recovered its independence.

Tradition ascribes to the Lydians the invention of coined money, formed from the gold dust of the river Pactolus. They were celebrated for their purple garments, their skill in working metal, and their slave markets.

*The reign of Nabonassar forms an important era in chronology. It was, according to Ptolemy, the beginning of the astronomical observations of the Chaldeans. Hence, it fixes the date of what is commonly called Ptolemy's Astronomical Canon. The method of reducing the years of this era to that employed by Christian nations, will be found in the Companion to the Almanac, 1830.

†The chronological objections to the celebrated interview between Croesus and Solon may be removed, if we suppose with Mr. Fynes Clinton, that Creesus reigned jointly with his father Alyattes. See also Larcher's Note 73, lib. i. of his translation of Herodotus.

ROME.

Origin of the Roman people.

At the period when history begins to throw a few rays of light upon the con dition of Italy, we find it occupied by various tribes, speaking different languages, and in different degrees of civilisation. The Umbrians, who are supposed to have come from Illyria, had penetrated to the Tiber, and occupied both its banks at a very remote era. Between them and the mouth of the river, lay the Siculans; while in the Apennine chain, near Mount Velino, and at the Lake Fucino, dwelt a rude and barbarous people, known by the name of Casci or Aborigines (primitive inhabitants). To the east of these were the Sabines, whose original abode was the Abruzzi, on the summits of the Apennines. These people seized on the Umbrian territory, and, in lapse of time, extended their frontiers as far as Rome. At this epoch, long before the date of the fall of Troy, the Aborigines settled on the south of Umbria, and there built cities and towns. The Siculans and these mountaineers were continually at war; and after long and terrible combats, the Aborigines, assisted by some Pelasgian colonists under Evander, vanquished the Siculans, and compelled them to take refuge in Trinacria, which afterwards bore the name of Sicily. The Pelasgians received their share of the conquered lands; but were in their turn subdued and nearly exterminated about the middle of the 12th century The Aborigines remained sole masters of the country, and were the primitive source of the Latin people. They were called Latins, from their king Latinus. The poetical traditions relate that Eneas, who had escaped the flames of Troy, married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and founded Lavinium. His son Ascanius is said to have built Alba Longa. Twelve princes reigned after him: Procas was the last. His sons Numitor and Amulius made war upon each other, and the latter triumphed; but he was driven from the throne by the two grandsons of Numitor, Romulus and Remus, whom the Romans supposed to be the offspring of Mars and the vestal Rhea Sylvia.

B. C.

The researches of Beaufort and Niebuhr have shaken the credibility of the early annals of Rome. But critical scepticism may be carried too far; for the science of history consists not only in the knowledge of truths, but in familiarity with all that has been related of the various nations which have figured in the world. An acquaintance with what the Romans themselves believed of the origin of the city is necessary to enable us to form a correct estimate of their character.

Consult: Arnold's History of Rome.

ROMULUS, 753.—The founder of Rome had been a shepherd in his youth. After having restored his grandfather Numitor to the throne, he settled, with some of his early companions, at a little distance from Alba, on the Palatine Hill, and probably on the ruins of a more ancient city. By making the new city an asylum for murderers and runaway slaves, the population increased. He established laws, divided the people into two classes-Patricians and Plebeians, and appointed a senate. At the close of a disastrous war with the Sabines, he was compelled to share his crown with Tatius, their king, though he soon became sole monarch again. After a reign of thirty-seven years he was murdered by the senators, who, fearful of the revenge of the populace, gave origin to the report that he had been carried up to heaven, and a temple was erected to him on the Quirinal hill. Romulus had the good sense to adopt many Sabine customs. The Romans always imitated this example with respect to the nations they conquered, and it was not the least cause of their renown. No people indeed ever rose to pre-eminent greatness with smaller pretensions to originality. They were indebted to the Greeks for every thing except their martial and republican spirit; whi.