1790, autnor of the Wealth of Nations; Hartley, 1757, and Reid, 1796, successfully cultivated metaphysics; Franklin, 1790, is highly esteemed as a writer on economics, and for his electrical discoveries; Priestley, 1804, attracted great attention by his chemical investigations, and his writings on controversial theology. In the fine arts may be selected the names of Hogarth, 1764, who has been called "the painter of comedy;" Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1792, felicitous in portraits, while his historical pieces are regarded as among the finest productions of the English school; and Gainsborough, 1788, the beauty of whose landscapes has been generally admired. The manufacturing prosperity of Britain received a signal impetus from the improvements effected in the steamengine by Watt, 1819, and the successive invention of the spinning-jenny, spinning-frame, and power-loom, by Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton. FRANCE. The eighteenth century in France, which the writers of the period complacently regarded as the age of Philosophy, exhibits many striking features. The character of this so-called philosophy was cold and heartless; and its aim, while affecting to attack vulgar prejudices merely, seemed to be to cast ridicule on the sublimest truths of religion, and by depriving man of all lofty hopes and aspirations, to fix the sum of happiness in merely sensual indulgence. The great personification and exponent of this era is Voltaire, 1778, a man eminent in every walk of literature, and whose numerous works, notwithstanding their sceptical character, still received a large tribute of admiration. The same tendencies were in a nearly equal degree promoted by Rousseau, 1778, whose celebrated work, Du Contrat Social, is believed to have hastened the revolution. This philosophy was embodied in a systematic form in the celebrated Encyclopædia, published in 1751, of which the chief editors were Diderot, 1784, and D'Alembert, 1783, the latter also highly distinguished for his contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy. Previously to these writers appeared Le Sage, 1747, whose amusing novel of Gil Blas has been translated into every European language. Marmontel, 1799, in the early chapters of Belisarius, reminds us of Fenelon; in the Moral Tales he is more exposed to censure. The period was strikingly deficient in poetical merit. A high place among metaphysical writers is due to Condillac, 1780; and Montesquieu, 1755, author of the Esprit des Lois, has the merit of making political science a favourite study. Rollin, 1741, is celebrated for his Ancient History; De Guignes, 1800, for a history of the Huns. Réaumur, 1757, an ingenious philosophical naturalist, has associated his name with an important improvement in the thermometer; Buffon, 1788, occupies the highest rank as a writer on natural history; Bonnet, 1793, and D'Aubenton, 1799, are well known in the same path of research. The pneumatic system of chemistry owes its foundation to Lavoisier, 1794; while mathematical and astronomical science present the conspicuous names of Lalande, 1807, and La Grange, 1813. Among the most eminent painters are enumerated Vernet, 1786, successful in marine subjects; Vien, 1810, the restorer of the French school, and model of the great masters by whom it is now illustrated; and Grenze, 1805, an elegant and tasteful artist. ITALY.- Italian literature during this century assumed a higher degree of vigour than it had displayed in the previous epoch. The comedies of Goldoni, 1772, effected a revolution in the stage; Metastasio, 1782, imparted poetical vigour to the opera; and tragedy owes its creation to Alfieri, 1803. The national historian, Muratori, 1750; Giannone, 1748, author of a history of Naples; and Tiraboschi, 1794, who wrote the annals of Italian literature, infused new vigour into their peculiar line of research. Political economy was cultivated with success by Filangieri, 1798, and other able writers. Morgagni, 1771, is highly distinguished for his anatomical investigations; astronomy presents the celebrated names of Cassini, 1756, and Boscovich, 1787. The investigations of natural history were successfully prosecuted by Spallanzani 1799; while the important discoveries of Galvani, 1798, and Volta, 1827, raised electricity to the rank of a science. Italy, so long the nurse of the fine arts, presented no longer that unquestionable ascendency she had formerly maintained; but she still produced many respectable artists, among whom the most distinguished were Lutti, 1724, and Battoni, 1786. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. With the accession of the Bourbon family, the literature of the peninsula began to be formed upon the model of that of France. Ignacio de Luzan, 1754, may be regarded as the founder of this new school, his Art of Poetry having produced an important revolution; the Portuguese writer, Xavier de Meneses, 1743, author of the Henriqueide, was also an esteemed poet. A number of respectable historians appeared, among whom may be mentioned, Ferreras, 1735, author of a history of Spain; Velasques, 1772, who wrote the annals of Castilian poetry; and Munos, 1795 (?), celebrated for his. unfinished History of Spanish America. Feyjoo, 1765, who has been called the Spanish Addison, is well known as a writer on ethics and criticism; Ulloa, 1795, cultivated mathematics and various subjects of scientific investigation. The natural history of the colonies attracted much attention at this period; their zoology was attentively investigated by Felix d'Azara, also distinguished as a traveller; and Ruiz and Pavon published valuable researches into the floral productions of Peru. GERMANY.-During this century Germany exhibited an extraordinary development of literary talent, offering a host of great men which it would be impossible even to enumerate. In imaginative writing appear the names of J. E. Schlegel, 1759; Klopstock, 1803, the immortal author of the Messiah; Zimmerman, 1795, whose work on Solitude has been extensively perused; and Wieland, 1813, successful alike in romance and poetry. Göthe, 1832, has been regarded as a sort of divinity, and he is unquestionably the founder of modern German literature; hardly less admiration has been accorded to his illustrious contemporary, Schiller, 1805, whose dramatic and historical works possess a constantly increasing reputation. The profound metaphysical views of Kant, 1804, have created a wonderful sensation in Europe. Fabricius, 1736, was renowned for his classical attainments; history has produced Struve, 1738; Mosheim, 1755; and Schlozer, 1809. Gesner, 1761, and Ernesti, 1781, are famed for their philological studies. Chemistry was cultivated by Stahl, 1734; medicine by Hoffman, 1742, as also by the celebrated Swiss poet and physician, Haller, 1777. The name of Fahrenheit, 1743, is well known in connexion with the thermometer. Euler, 1783, rendered important services to mathematical science; Werner, 1817, has acquired a European reputation in reference to the comparatively new study of geology; and Lavater, 1801, attracted considerable attention by his fanciful work on physiognomy. The German school of painting was illustrated by the splendid historical productions of Mengs, 1779; it also presents many eminent landscape artists, among whom may be mentioned Dietrich, 1774, and Gesner, 1788. The science of music is perhaps mainly indebted to the composers of Germany. During this century, she furnished the great names of Handel, 1759, Mozart, 1791, Haydn, 1809, Beethoven, 1807, and Weber, 1826. HOLLAND AND THE NORTH.-Many eminent literary and scientific characters at this time appeared in Holland, though her imaginative writers have attracted less attention. Gronovius, 1716, celebrated for his classical attainments, wrote an admired work on Greek Antiquities. A new theory of medicine was founded by the illustrious Boerhaave, 1738, and further improved by Gaubius, 1780; Van Swieten, 1772, prosecuted the same science. Among various distinguished philologists may be mentioned Schultens, 1750; Hoogeveen, 1794; and Valckenaer, 1820. In Sweden appeared Dalin, 1763, an eminent historian and poet; the renowned Linnæus, 1778, whose sexual system of botany has been generally adopted throughout Europe; and Wallerius, 1785, known as an industrious chemist and mineralogist. Denmark produced Holberg, 1754, whose versatile talents were alternately turned to the drama, satire, and history; Ewald, 1781, the greatest and most admired of modern northern poets; Suhm, 1798, author of a valuable history of Denmark; and Pontoppidan, 1764, celebrated for his natural history of Norway. Pallas, 1811, a native of Prussia, is connected with Russian literature by his travels in the southern portions of that empire, and his valuable contributions to its natural history. NINETEENTH CENTURY. GREAT BRITAIN.-1801, Irish Union.-1802, Peace of Amiens.-1805, Victory of Trafalgar.-1808, Peninsular War.-1810, Regency.-1812, War with the United States. -1814, Battle of Toulouse. 1815, Waterloo. 1820, George IV. FRANCE.-1800, Marengo and Hohenlinden.-1802, Peace of Amiens.-1804, ITALY.-1799, Parthenopean Republic.-1806, Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples.-Battle of Maida.-1808, Murat King.-1812, Sicilian Constitution. -1815, New federal Compact of Zurich. GERMANY.-1805, Confederation of the Rhine.-1809, Battle of Aspern.Tyrolese War.-1815, Germanic League. HOLLAND.-1806, Louis Bonaparte King.-1810, Incorporation with France. 1815, William Frederick I. King of United Netherlands. DENMARK.-1801, Battle of the Baltic.-1807, Bombardment of Copenhagen. 1814, Cession of Norway to Sweden. Sweden.-1809, Gustavus IV. deposed; Charles XIII.-1810, Bernadotte Crown Prince.-1818, Charles XIV. PRUSSIA.-1797, Frederick III.-1806, Defeat at Jena.-1813, War with France; Landsturm; Blucher.-Lutzen and Bautzen; Leipsic.-1814, Restoration of Territories. RUSSIA.-1801, Paul I. assassinated; Alexander I.-1807, Friedland; Treaty of Tilsit.—1809-1812, Turkish War.-1812, French Invasion; Burning of Moscow.-1815, Kingdom of Poland. TURKEY.-1806, Insurrection of Janissaries; Mustapha IV.-Mahmoud II.1812, Peace of Bucharest. BRITISH INDIA.-1803, Mahratta War; Battle of Assaye.-1813, Marquis of Hastings; Pindaree War.-1818, British paramount throughout India. UNITED STATES.-1801, Mr. Jefferson President.-1803, Purchase of Louisiana, 1812, War with Britain.-1814, Treaty of Ghent.-1817, Acquisition of Florida. BRAZIL.-1822, Declaration of Independence; Don Pedro Emperor.-1824. Constitution. SPANISH COLONIES.-1810, Revolution in Caraccas.-1816, Buenos Ayres.. 1818, Chili.-1821, Mexico, Peru, and Guatemala.-1824, Victory of Aya cucho; Final Expulsion of Spaniards. GREAT BRITAIN. The legislative union with Ireland, effected on the first day of the present century, secured to that country most of the commercial privileges which the people had long demanded: twenty-eight temporal and four spiritual peers, with one hundred commoners, were admitted to the British, now called the Imperial Parliament; while their proportion of the public burdens was fixed by an equitable adjustment.* On the Continent, the events of the campaign of 1800 were most unfavourable to Austria; so that, in the beginning of next year, the emperor was compelled to sign a peace at Luneville, by which the French became masters of all Europe west of the Rhine and south of the Adige. The Czar, also, who had become a warm friend of Napoleon, seized upon all the British vessels in his ports; while Denmark and Sweden appeared to be on the point of joining him in a confederacy against England. In these circumstances, Sir Hyde Parker was despatched with an armament to the Baltic, under whom Nelson proved so successful against the Danish fleet, as to reduce that country to a state of neutrality. Further operations in that quarter were interrupted by the death of the Emperor Paul: his son and successor, Alexander, immediately disclaiming all hostile intentions, formed an amicable convention with Great Britain. About this time, an army which had been sent to drive the French out of Egypt, succeeded in effecting its purpose, though with the loss of its brave commander, Sir Ralph Abercromby, who was mortally wounded at the battle of Alexandria, March 21. Nevertheless, the signal triumphs of France on the Continent, joined to the sufferings of a famine which at this time bore hard on the great body of the people, produced a general desire for peace; and in order to facilitate such an arrangement, a new ministry had been formed under Mr. Addington in the beginning of the year. A negotiation was accordingly opened, which terminated in a definitive treaty signed at Amiens, March 27, 1802; England retaining several of her colonial conquests, while her opponent remained unquestioned mistress of the Continent. The public joy at this event was however destined to be of short duration. Bonaparte, who had now, as First Consul, concentrated the whole government of France in his hands, took advantage of several unsettled points in the treaty, and showed a disposition so evidently unfriendly, as to provoke the British to retaliate by retaining Malta, of which they had obtained possession in 1800, and the war was accordingly recommenced in May 1803. The latter immediately laid an embargo on the French shipping in their ports, and employed a naval force to occupy such of the West India Islands as still belonged to the enemy; while Napoleon, seizing upon great numbers of English visiters then in France, confined them as prisoners of war. He was able also to overrun Hanover, and exclude British commerce from Hamburg; and while an immense flotilla was collected at Boulogne, for the avowed purpose of * Notwithstanding the general fairness of this measure, however, the Irish viewed with great discontent the abolition of their national legislature; and their feelings in this respect led to a conspiracy in 1803, under Emmett and Russell, for seizing the seat of government. After some tumults in the streets of Dublin, in which several persons lost their lives, the mob was dispersed by the military, and their leaders, being seized, were tried and executed. invading England. In April 1804, Mr. Pitt was again called to the head of affairs; and next year that able statesman succeeded in organ'zing a new coalition, consisting of Russia, Sweden, Austria, and Naples, to oppose the ambition of the French ruler. He, on the other hand having become absolute master of Holland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, made every exertion to contest the empire of the sea. A combined fleet of thirty-three sail, partly French and partly Spanish, met a British squadron of twenty-seven under Nelson, off Cape Trafalgar, October 25, and was totally defeated, though at the expense of the life of the British commander. The exertions of the allies, however, could oppose no barrier to the extraordinary fortune of Napoleon in continental Europe, where the decisive victory of Austerlitz once more prostrated the power of Austria, and enabled him to dictate a humiliating peace to her monarch before the end of the year. This event produced much gloom in the British councils, and proved a deathblow to Mr. Pitt, who expired on the 23d January 1806. A new ministry was forthwith formed under his great political rival, Mr. Fox; but that statesman dying on the 13th September following, it was in the next year succeeded by another, of which Mr. Perceval was the recognised leader. One of the first acts of the new cabinet was the despatch of an armament to Copenhagen, tc seize and carry off the Danish navy, which was expected to be immediately employed in subserviency to France. The object of the expedidition was easily accomplished; but this attack on a neutral power was very unfavourably regarded by foreign states, and the Emperor of Russia, in particular, having made peace with France, seized the opportunity to recall his ambassador from London. Various expeditions had about the same time been sent to the Dardanelles, to Egypt, and against the Spanish settlements on the River Plate in South America, none of which were attended with any advantage. In 1808, nearly the whole of the Continent might be considered as arrayed in hostility to England. The Austrians had been compelled to yield a large portion of their territory to Napoleon; by the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, he had annihilated the power of Prussia; Italy, Spain, and Portugal were in his hands; Russia had made peace with him; and by his famous Berlin decrees, declaring Great Britain in a state of blockade, he shut the ports of Europe against her merchandise. But this signal elevation, and the tyranny which it produced, began to awaken against the French emperor a spirit he had not hitherto encountered. Down to this period, the contest had been one more of governments than of people, and the triumphs of his arms were viewed with no small degree of sympathy by many even in the subjugated countries; but now he began to be regarded as the common enemy of mankind, whose boundless ambition it was every one's duty to repress. The first symptoms of this reaction were manifested in Spain, where the inhabitants, exasperated by the usurpations of the French, roused themselves to insurrection, and implored assistance from Britain. An expedition of about ten thousand men was accordingly fitted out, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, which, after some communication with the Spanish leaders, was directed in the first instance to Portugal. This force, having landed in Mondego Bay, soon afterwards defeated the French under Junot at Vimieiro, August 21; upon which, a convention was entered into with Sir Hew Dalrymple, who had subsequently taken |