1840.]

"Let A B, in the annexed diagram, represent the surface of a district composed, like some of the eastern parts of England, of strata of sand, clay, and gravel, resting upon chalk, all the strata having a slight inclination to the eastward, or towards B: a farmer cultivating the sandy soil at a, knows, for he observes it in riding to market, that at a certain distance from his own farm he shall cross a tract of clay, b, and that, after leaving that, he shall meet with sand and gravel again at c, and that at d he shall quit the plain and reach hills of chalk. But, he does not know, and he would probably laugh at the person who communicated the information, that all the strata b, c, and d, are to be found under his own land at a, at a depth proportioned to the thickness and inclination of the strata, so that a bed which, in one part of an estate will be at a considerable depth, may rise in another very near the surface. But these are points to the determination of which the geologist applies himself, and having ascertained, from the nature of the embedded fossils, that the stratum, a, is the crag, and b the London clay,—he knows that by proceeding in a direction contrary to that in which the strata dip, he shall meet with the sands and gravels of the plastic clay, as well as with the chalk, rising successively to the surface."

[Abridged from ZORNLIN'S Recreations in Geology.]

THE JACKALL AND HIS FRIENDS,

OR, THE SELF-PURVEYOR; A FABLE,

SOME men attain their selfish ends
By separating dearest friends.

The traveller, in his farthest range,
Ne'er met a company so strange,
As strolled along, one summer's day,
The forest green, in search of prey.
A Jackall led the motley crew,
As pioneer and steward too.
Next came a Tiger in his pride:

A gaunt Wolf followed with a stride.

A keen Ichneumon joined the throng,

With whom a small Mouse tripped along.
"Hush!" said the Jackall, "friends, prepare!
An Antelope stands grazing there:
On him we might most richly feed,
But then he beats us all at speed;
What's to be done to gain the prize?"
"Nay," said the Tiger, "you advise."
"Well, honoured Sir, the beast, I see,
Has lain him down 'neath yonder tree,
Our friend the Mouse here, I propose,
Should softly creep, and gnaw his toes;
Then when he halts, with pain distressed,
We'll trust to you to do the rest!

'Twas done. The Mouse, with coat of gray,
Wound through the grass his noiseless way,
And when the outstretched foot he found,
Struck to the quick a secret wound.
Swift on his feet the creature sprung,
But lo! his speed was all unstrung!

Then leaped the Tiger, with a roar,
And felled him to arise no more.

While his poor life ebbed fast away,
The brutes came round him where he lay.
"This," said the Jackall, " is a treat!
But, gentlemen, before you eat,
I pray you bathe, whilst I remain
To guard the carcase of the slain."

Forth to a stream the friends repair,
And make their due ablutions there.

"Now," thought the Jackall, "how shall I Cheat each companion with a lie? If for myself I keep this feast, 'Twill last me for a week at least."

First, to the Tiger, as he sped,
Refreshed and pleased, the robber said,
"O Sir, I heard the Mouse declare,
This victory here was his affair!
For what could you have done forsooth,
But for his sharp and dainty tooth?"

The Tiger turned about and frowned,
Then sought the wild woods with a bound,
Growling, "What Tiger ever deigned
To eat a meal a Mouse had gained !"

The hero gone, the work was short
With claimants of a meaner sort.
When the half-famished Wolf drew near,
The Jackall whispered in his ear,
"Sir Wolf, I tell you as a friend,
Yon Tiger wishes to contend
With all or any who dispute
His title to the slaughtered brute !"
"Is't so, dear Jackall! then adieu,
But you'll avoid the tyrant too?"
"Yes, yes, anon, I only wait
To save our comrades from their fate."

The Mouse arrived, expecting cheer,
"Hist !" said the Jackall, "fly for fear!
The Tiger's hungry; mind you that :
And what's a Tiger but a Cat?"
The poor Mouse, stealing fast away,
Saw no more daylight all that day.

Th' Ichneumon now approached alone,
To whom the thief, with altered tone:~
"If you, Sir, dare maintain a right
In th' Antelope, prepare to fight!"
"Not for the world!" th' Ichneumon cried;
"One loss I patiently abide,

The loss, when hungry, of a meal;

But wounds are difficult to heal;

Nor will I now expose my paw
To burns from violence or law."

Trust not a shrewd projector's plan,
Until you know and prove your man;
F'en then proceed with thoughtful care,
Lest, losing your invested share,
You mourn your labour, worse than lost,
Whilst knavery revels at your cost.

55

ON MILITARY DRILLING. II. WHILE standing in the position of attention, even the eyes of the soldier are under the command and guid'Eyes right," or ance of the officer. On the word " "Eyes to the right," the eyes must be turned in that direction, but without any movement of the head. The reverse must be observed at the word "Eycs left," adn at "Eyes front" they must be brought back to the front. The principal use of this is in dressing, or forming into a perfectly straight rank, which is of This is done either by course of great importance.

the right, or by the left, the word "right dress," or "left dress," being given. Every soldier then turns his eyes to the right or left, and moves forward or backward, till he can just see the face of the second man from him and no further; he is then exactly in line. In dressing by the right, the right flank stands still, and in dressing by the left, the left flank stands still; for it is evident that the flank by which the rank is dressed must govern the motions of all the rest, so that if he were to move, all the rest must move also.

In dressing, great care is taken that the recruits turn their eyes only, and not their bodies, shoulders, or even heads, and bending forwards or backwards must on no account be allowed; for if a man who was behind the line were to bring himself apparently intoit, by bending forward, he would obviously be no longer dressed when he resumed his upright position. Neither is any sudden change of place allowed in dressing, but the body is brought to its place gradually, by a succession of very short quick steps, which do not derange the upright position of the body. The recruits are practised in this peculiar motion, by ordering the whole of them to dress forward or backward at once, and to continue such motion till they are told to halt.

The next thing which the recruit is taught, is to go through the facings, of which there are eight. Each facing consists of two motions, first, placing the feet in a peculiar position, and, secondly, turning round on the heels into the new direction, or face, which the body is to assume. The preparatory placing of the feet differs according to the nature of the turn, or face, to be made, but in this first movement the left foot remains steady: it is the right foot only which is drawn back more or less in all facings towards the right, and advanced in the facings tawards the left. Between the two movements a short pause is always to be observed. But, in the case of recruits at drill, after the first movement has been made, the word "two" is given by the drill-officers, whereupon the facing is completed, and not till then. This remark applies to the first four facings.

1. "Right face" implies a turn of ninety degrees, or a quarter of a circle, towards the right; so that the body may be at right angles to its proper position. To effect this, the right foot is drawn back four or five inches, so that its hollow part may fit on the left heel the toes are then lifted up, and the body passes smoothly and quickly round on the heels, which will be found closed in their proper position, when the turn or facing is completed.

2. "Left face" is a similar turn, but to the left instead of to the right. The right foot is therefore advanced as much as it was before drawn back, so that the heel may be placed in the hollow of the left foot. The turn is then made as before, but in the opposite direction.

3. "Right half face" is a turn equal to half that effected by a " right face." The angle moved through is therefore forty-five degrees, or one-eighth of a circle, and the body then faces off in a diagonal direction. As this is but a very small turn, the right foot need only be slightly drawn back: about an inch is generally sufficient, and care must be taken that it be not drawn back too much, or the heels will not correspond after the turn is completed.

4. "Left half face" is just the reverse of the foregoing, and to effect it, the right foot must be advanced

about an inch.

5. "Right about face." This is a complete turn of half a circle, and it effects at once what would otherwise require two right faces. To prepare the feet for such a large turn, the right foot must be drawn back so much, that its toe may touch the left heel. At the word "two" the body must turn completely round to its rear, smoothly and without swinging, so as to preserve its balance. When this facing is completed, the heels will not be found closed in their proper position. This must therefore be done at the word "three," which constitutes a third motion, and between each of the three motions a sufficient pause is observed.

6. Left about face." This facing is seldom used, as it effects just the same change of position as the last,

The

but by turning to the left instead of to the right. right foot is of course advanced as much as it was before drawn back.

Per

A

7. "Right about three-quarters face" implies a turn equal to three-quarters of that effected by a right about face. It effects at once what would otherwise require a right face, and then a right half face. haps the plainest way of illustrating all these facings is by reference to the eight principal points of the compass. Supposing a soldier to stand facing the north, a right or a left about face would carry him round so as to face the south. A right face would bring him to the east, and a left face to the west. right half face and a left half face would respectively face the north-east and the north-west; and the right about three-quarters face would make him front to the south-east. To effect this last face the right foot must be drawn back more than for a right face, but less than for a right about; or so that the ball of this foot may touch the left heel. After having turned round the heels will not be found closed, but will require to be properly placed by a third motion, in the right or left about face.

as

8. "Left about three-quarters face" is just the reverse of the last, and is effected by advancing the right foot so that its heel may touch the ball of the left foot, and then turning round in such wise that, if the face were before presented northward, it shall now face the south-west.

VYYY

Right half face.

Left half face.

Right face.

Left face.

Right

about face.

Left about face.

Right about face.

Left about faee.

This figure shows the preparatory positions of the feet, necessary for each of the eight facings, in which it will be seen that the left foot never moves from its original position.

Among the facings may also be included the word "front," at which the soldier, in whatever direction he may be turned, makes such a face as may bring him round to his proper front, by the shortest way. Thus, unless he be facing directly to his rear, there can be no doubt which way is the shortest; for a person cannot easily turn more than half a circle. But when the soldier is faced directly to his rear, the two ways of fronting (either by a right about or by a left about face) are both of the same length. In such a case it is a rule that on the word front being given, he must come to the right about.

LONDON:

JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND. PUBLISHED IN WEEKLY NUMBERS, PRICE ONE PENNY, AND IN MONTHLY PARTS, PRICE SIXPENCE. Sold by all Booksellers and Newvenders in the Kingdom,

THESE two cities, the largest and wealthiest in the United States, are, from their commercial character, and proximity to each other, most decided rivals. Although Philadelphia once led, and for a considerable period afterwards kept pace with New York, the increasing trade of the country naturally concentrating in the most advantageous situation, has given to the latter a preponderance in commercial affairs, which nothing short of some unforeseen and dire calamity, or some unnatural revolution in matters of state, will ever bring back to the former city.

In the early colonizing of North America, a portion of what at present constitutes the State of New York was settled by the Dutch; but before the city —which is now second to few in the Old World for the extent of its commerce-had become a place of much importance, the Dutch possessions in North America were ceded to the crown of Great Britain. The situation of New York is rather low, being built upon the southern end of what is called Manhattan Island, (the name originally given to it by the Dutch,) a strip of land about fifteen miles in length, but hardly two in breadth at its widest part. Though called an island, it is more properly a peninsula, since it is separated from the main land towards the north by a channel that is little more than a mere ditch. Manhattan is separated from the State of New Jersey by the North or Hudson River, and a narrow inlet of the sea, called the East River, communicating with Long Island Sound and the Bay of New York, bounds VOL. XVI.

it on the east, and separates it from Long Island. A present the city extends from the south point of this strip of land (where there is a strong battery) about three miles northward, but the ground plot is laid out to a much greater extent, and here and there may be seen isolated buildings, many of them marking the corners and angles of future streets and squares, destined hereafter to be comprised within the bustle of this rapidly increasing city.

There are two approaches to New York from the sea; but that by Long Island Sound and the East River is little used, except for small craft and steamvessels plying to different ports in the Eastern States. The other, and principal entrance, is at Sandy Hook, a channel lying between Long Island and the coast of New Jersey. It is somewhat exposed to the winds from the eastward, and on account of a bar or sandbank, the entrance is attended with some danger and difficulty. Within the Hook is Raritan Bay, and here of a breadth of several miles, which breadth, however, decreases, until, at "the Narrows," the distance between the Long Island shore and this island is only nine hundred yards. After passing through the Narrows, the danger of the voyage may be considered over, and New York and its environs present themselves to view. The whole distance from the sea to the city is sixteen miles. Notwithstanding the vast extent of shipping connected with, and trading to New York, it has nothing like an enclosed harbour, But the anchorage between the eastern part of the

489

city and Long Island shore, which is here lofty, is both good and safe. The tides rise but a few feet on this part of the American coast, so were docks absolutely necessary for the security of the shipping, they could scarcely be made available. Buildings have already encroached considerably upon this section of the East River, and numerous small low wooden piers jut out into the water, for vessels to load and unload at; the spaces between them, forming a series of small basins, without gates, are called " slips," and are found exceedingly convenient for the general purposes of ships and shipping.

The older portions of the city do not present much taste or regularity in the buildings and streets, although great improvements have been made from time to time, particularly in situations where fires have occurred, the most extensive being that which took place three or four years ago. With the single exception of Broadway, however, there is not a street that would strike the stranger as in any degree remarkable. Broadway commences at the extreme southern end of the city, at the Castle Gardens, and runs pretty nearly along the centre of the island; but owing to several slight ascents and descents, in passing along the ridge, the view is never so extensive as one might be led to suppose. Formerly most of the side walks were sheltered by rows of trees, but of later years an opinion got abroad that these trees were a nuisance, a harbour for insects to breed in, that afterwards found their way into the houses, to the great annoyance of the inmates. In consequence of this, many of the older trees have been removed, but the taste for shade-trees seems again to be reviving, and we find many recently planted ones in various parts of the city. Along the old portion of Broadway the buildings are by no means either peculiarly splendid or regular. A row of tolerably large brick houses is often interrupted by two or three low and meanlooking ones, and after gazing with admiration upon some genteel marble-fronted residence, probably the very next buildings will prove nothing better than two or three paltry shops, of not half the elevation of their classical and aristocratic neighbour. From many parts of Broadway there is a gentle descent on either hand towards the rivers, but in the newer portions of the city, many of the cross streets are almost on a level. Although there are some other streets parallel, or nearly so, to Broadway, the cross streets are often neither straight nor at equal distances, presenting but very little regularity. In the new portion of the city the streets are straight and regular.

William Penn was the founder of Philadelphia, and before the building of that city was commenced, a regular plan had been suggested, which was afterwards strictly adhered to, and those that have contributed since his time towards making Philadelphia what it is at present, appear to have made no encroachments upon the regularity of the original plan. In most of the better order of streets, the buildings are more regular than in New York, and although the houses are neither large nor much ornamented, on the whole they present a highly respectable appearance. Except in a few public buildings, principally banking institutions, you see no marble fronts; but the flights of steps in front of several of the best houses, as well as the door and window-sills, are of white or veined marble. The houses are mostly brick: a very few have stone fronts, and in both these large cities a few of the original wooden buildings are still visible. In one respect there is a resemblance between these rival cities-they are both built upon ground somewhat sloping, and between two rivers, though their respective rivers have little resemblance.

Philadelphia extends from the Delaware river on the east-which separates it from New Jersey-to the Schuylkill on the west, the distance between these rivers, across the centre of the city, being nearly two miles. It is but for a moderate distance, however, and that in the middle of the city, that the ground adjoining the Schuylkill has yet been built upon, the great accumulation of building being on the side of the Delaware. Market-street, which extends in a direct line from river to river, is accounted the centre of the city, the streets to the north and south of it being parallel thereto, while those running parallel to the rivers, cross it at right angles. Though the plan of this city is simple, yet it is interesting. All the streets running in a direction north and south are named according to their respective positions, in regard to their distance from the rivers. Thus on the side of the city adjacent to the Delaware-excepting the range of warehouses, and the street in their rear, which, significantly enough, is named Water-street,

they are called First-street, (or front,) Second-street, Third-street, &c., up to Thirteenth-street, that being the adjoining one to a broad avenue, running along the centre or top of the ridge. All these streets necessarily cross Market-street and the streets parallel to it, the various sections lying north or south of Market-street being named accordingly; those towards the north being named North Third-street, North Fourth-street, &c., while the contrary sections have South appended to them, and are known as South Fourth-street, South Fifth-street, &c. Perhaps to have followed out the simplicity of this plan the streets crossing east and west should have been named after the letters of the alphabet, but in that case an inconvenience might have occurred when the number of streets exceeded the letters in the alphabet. At present the principal streets, running east and west, are named after the various sorts of indigenous trees common to Pennsylvania. Thus there is Chestnut-street, Pine-street, Mulberry-street, Locuststreet, &c. But of late years there seems to have been some change of taste in the naming of their streets, or else they have outrun their wooden names, since we find many of the new streets evidently named agreeably to some whim or caprice, and many others after individuals, the original owners of the property, or those whose names are most popular amongst the American population.

While the city has been gradually extending in various directions, several villages once quite distinct from it (as was formerly the case with many villages now swallowed up by London) are now included within what may reasonably be considered its present limits; but the growth towards the north has somewhat exceeded that towards the south. The blocks of buildings formed by the streets crossing each other at right angles are called "squares." Hence a stranger who has been accustomed to the open areas of our own squares is occasionally not a little puzzled when he finds it necessary to inquire the way, or the distance to such or such a place: for where it is intended to define the route very particularly the party inquired of will direct him along such a street, a certain number of "squares," (not so many minutes' walk, or the fractional parts of a mile,) and then turn to the right or the left, as the case may happen to be, when a certain number of squares more will bring him to the place he inquired for. Should he ask for an explanation respecting the names of the squares he would be surprised to find that nothing had been meant except the blocks of buildings between the several cross streets.

Owing to its inland situation Philadelphia is not so

agreeably refreshed with sea breezes as New York during the summer season; the distance from the sea at the entrance of Delaware Bay being nearly 90 miles. It is, however, generally considered the more healthy city of the two, which in some measure may be owing to its streets being more open and cleanly, since the streets in New York bordering on the East River, at least that portion of them inhabited by low Irish and coloured people, are usually in a disgusting and filthy condition. But most of the large American towns are more or less unhealthy during the latter part of the warm season, which needs no other | proof than a reference to the bills of mortality, and to the prevailing custom of removing to more salubrious situations during the hot weather by all who possess the means and whose presence can possibly be dispensed with in their callings or professions. The river Delaware is fully a mile in width in front of the city, whither ships of the largest size can come close up to the quay to load and unload; but owing to a bar, and the exposed situation of the entrance into the bay, Philadelphia has been considered neither a safe port, nor one easy of access. Moreover, the channel of the river is winding, so that it used sometimes to occupy several days to complete the voyage after entering within the capes of the Delaware. This species of delay, however, has been partially remedied by the introduction of steam-boats, the application of which however is attended with considerable expense. Severe frosts occasionally interrupt the navigation of the Delaware for several weeks; but severe indeed must be the season that materially affects the Bay of New York. The approaches to both cities are strongly fortified.

The Schuylkill is a much smaller river than the Delaware; and though its channel is of considerable depth from where it enters its sister river (four miles below the city), still it is comparatively little used for shipping purposes. Immediately above the city its banks attain a considerable elevation, affording beautiful views, some of which are highly picturesque. By means of a lofty dam thrown across this river, a considerable head of water is obtained, and powerful machinery employed in forcing the water through the spacious pipes to the top of the lofty bank where it is received into a capacious reservoir from whence it is conveyed to various parts of the city. The Philadelphians are very proud of their water works; nor do they neglect to let their neighbours of New York hear of their superior supply of this necessary of life. It must be admitted that New York is but indifferently supplied with good water; for neither that yielded by the generality of pumps, nor that kept in tanks, is of a good quality; the only really pure water to be met with during the summer is what is brought by water-carts from a spring at a considerable distance, and hawked about the streets and sold by the gallon. But the rivalry of these two cities extends to things edible, as well as to matters local and commercial, the prejudices of the parties being often carried to extravagant lengths-lengths occasionally assuming the ridiculous.

In consequence of the colony of Pennsylvania having been founded by William Penn and his followers, Philadelphia is not unfrequently denominated "the city of the Quakers;" and although the population at present comprises religious sects of various denominations, the Quakers, as to number, rank in the third or fourth order, but as regards wealth and respectability they are second to none.

For some time Philadelphia was considered as the capital of the United States, and the National Con- | gress was held here until the year 1800; when,

agreeably to an Act of Congress passed eight years before, the government and the national legislative bodies removed to the City of Washington.

Within the last fifteen or twenty years the internal improvements with which Philadelphia is connected or interested in, have been carried to a very great extent; a few of the leading ones may be enumerated. Several years ago a rapid communication with New York was completed-being partly by steam-boat and partly by railway; the distance between those cities, by the old route, was ninety-six miles. The Delaware river has been rendered navigable nearly to its source-partly by improving the channel, and partly by opening canals to avoid the more formidable obstructions of the river. A canal has also been opened along the entire length of the valley of the Schuylkill, and another from the Delaware to the mountain region in the interior of the state; so that through these channels the city is not only supplied with an abundance of coal, but also with the produce of the country. Both a canal and a railroad have been made between the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, affording convenient and expeditious communications between this city and Baltimore,—and thence by railroad to Washington City. But the greatest of these public works is the communication partly by railroad, and partly by canal, between this city and Pittsburgh on the Ohio,-from whence there is a steam-boat communication with the entire valley of the Mississippi. This route passes over the Alleghany mountains; the whole distance to Pittsburg being considerably over 300 miles.

With all these advantages, (and several others not enumerated) still Philadelphia cannot successfully compete with its formidable rival, although they undoubtedly very much tend to add to both its trade and resources.

The commercial importance of New York is by no means derived exclusively from its advantageous position as a sea-port; since, besides its natural advantages, it at present enjoys the privilege of vast internal improvements.

Besides that fine navigable stream, the Hudson, which stretches northward into the very heart of this fine and large state, there are canals communicating with the lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, and thence with the river St. Lawrence and both the Canadas. Some of the canals are connected with water communications passing through the states of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and thenceforward to "the Far West." By these means the productions of extensive regions, far into the interior, are brought to New York, to be exported or consumed as the case may be; and in return large quantities of merchandize are supplied to the inhabitants of the inland towns and cities, as well as to many a far-distant settlement. But there are various other works of general improvement, two of which, and not the least important, are the Delaware and Hudson, and the Morristown canals. The first of these connects the Delaware and Hudson rivers, the latter the Delaware (near the mouth of the Lehigh) and the Passaic river, and consequently with the Bay of New York. By these channels large quantities of coal find their way to this city; much of which is re-shipped and sent to various parts of the Union.

The steam-boats plying to and from New York are, probably, quite as numerous as those frequenting the waters of Old Father Thames. Besides the ferry-boats across the two rivers (all steamers, and no bridges) at the various ferries, there are vessels plying between this city and every sea-board town in the Eastern States; as well as to every sea-port towards the south from 489-2