can vessels, provides for administering justice to seamen through its courts, and sends consuls to all foreign ports to look after the commercial interests of American citizens. It surveys the coasts, clears harbors and rivers from obstructions, builds breakwaters, erects lighthouses and buoys, and enacts laws respecting pilotage, quarantine, and wrecking.

Promotion of
Commercial
Interests.

Besides the power to regulate commerce, Congress has other powers which closely concern commercial interests. These are, the power to coin money, to fix the value of American and foreign coins, to fix the standard of weights and measures, to provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States, and to establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States.

Coining Money.

For coining money, mints are established at various places. The principal one is at Philadelphia; and there are branches at San Francisco; Carson City, Nev.; and Denver, Col. There are assay offices at New York; Charlotte, N.C.; and Boise City, Idaho. Gold and silver bullion is received at either of these places in amount not less than one hundred dollars in value. This is assayed, that is, tested to ascertain the relative amount of pure metal in it; and the depositor receives for it its value either in coin or in stamped bars, less a small charge for assaying, melting, and coining. The mint and branches are in charge of persons appointed by the president. Congress determines what coins shall be issued, and the standard fineness of each, regulates the charges for coining, and makes all rules for the conduct of the business.

Although Congress has the power to fix the standard Weights and of weights and measures for the country, Measures. it has never exercised the power. It has adopted the English units for the use of the officers of the government in the custom-houses, and has furnished copies of these to the States, but has not made their use obligatory. There is still considerable diversity in different sections of the country. Congress has also legalized the use of the metric system.

Laws.

The object of bankrupt laws is to free debtors from Bankrupt all their obligations on giving up their property to their creditors. When the relation of debtor and creditor is held by citizens of different States, it is desirable that the laws regulating their relation should be uniform, or great injustice might be done, and the commerce between the States checked. This uniformity can only be secured by the action of Congress.

3. RESPECTING NATURALIZATION.

Congress has the power to establish a uniform rule of naturalization. As the citizens of one State have all the rights of citizens in every other State, it is necessary that the qualifications for citizenship should be the same in all. The process of naturalization consists of two Declaration of steps. The first is the declaration of Intention. intention to become a citizen of the United States. This must be made on oath before a circuit or district court of the United States; or before a State court of record having common law jurisdiction, a clerk, and a seal. This declaration is recorded, and a certificate given to the person.

At least two years must elapse before the second step, — the oath of allegiance. The person must prove by witness upon oath, that he has resided oath of Allegiin the United States at least five years, and ance.

in the State in which he wishes to be naturalized at least one year; and that during this time he has borne a good moral character, and has been well disposed toward the Constitution and government. He then makes a written declaration, and supports it by oath, that he renounces allegiance to all foreign powers, and especially the one to which he has been subject, and that he will support the Constitution of the United States. A certificate of citizenship is then given him by the court.

Special Cases

If the applicant was under eighteen years of ag when he came to this country, the declaration of intention is dispensed with, but the five years of residence must be proved. A soldier who has served in the United States army and been honorably discharged, may become a citizen, after a residence of one year, on taking the oath of allegiance. The wife and minor children, if living in the country, become citizens by the naturalization of the husband and father.

4. RESPECTING POSTAL COMMUNICATION.

Congress has the power "to establish post-offices and post-roads." This includes all that is necessary to secure prompt delivery of the mails in any part of the country. The ordinary routes of travel, highways and railroads, are adopted by the government as post-roads. Congress declares by law what matter may be trans

ported through the mails and at what rates, fixes the salaries of all officers connected with the service, and prescribes how contracts shall be made for carrying the mails, and for furnishing the necessary articles for the department. The postal money-order system has also been established by Congress, under this provision of the Constitution.

5. RESPECTING PATENTS AND COPYRIGHTS.

Congress has the power "to promote the progress of science and the useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries."

Patent.

A patent is a written instrument by which the government secures to an inventor the exclusive right to manufacture and sell his invention. The invention may be an art, a machine, a manufacture, or a composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereon. The patent is issued by the commissioner of patents for a term of seventeen years.

A copyright is the exclusive privilege granted by government to print, publish, and sell Copyright. copies of writings or drawings. Copyrights are issued only to citizens or residents of the United States. They cover books, maps, charts, musical compositions, prints, cuts, and engravings, and the representation of dramatic compositions. The copyright is issued by the librarian of Congress, and is valid for a term of twenty-eight years. At the end of that time, the author or his heirs may secure an extension of the right for fourteen years.

6. RESPECTING THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.

The Constitution provides for a supreme court, but gives to Congress power to constitute inferior tribunals. Under this power the circuit and district courts, and the court of claims, have been established, and the modes of performing their functions regulated.

Congress has certain other powers which necessarily grow out of the sovereignty of the United States.

Piracy.

One of these is, "to define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations." The term "high seas " means the unenclosed waters of the ocean, and also those waters on the seacoast which are without the boundary of low-water mark. By the law of nations, piracy is defined as a robbery or forcible depredation on the high seas, without lawful authority, in the spirit of universal hostility. Congress declared that murder and robbery on the high seas, or any offence which if committed on land would be punishable with death, shall be considered piracy and felony. The slave-trade has also been declared to be piracy. Piracy is punishable with death.

The power is also given to Congress to declare the punishment of treason; but the Constitu

Treason.

tion defines the crime, and limits the penalty. Treason against the United States consists" only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort." It is further declared that "no person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court." The student of English history will recall the gross injustice perpe